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EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES   OF 

VILLAGE   AND   RURAL 

COMMUNITIES 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NKW  YORK   •   BOSTON  •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •   SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


M 


EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES  OF 

VILLAGE  AND  RURAL 

COMMUNITIES 


EDITED    BY 
JOSEPH    K.    HART 

ASSISTANT   PROFESSOR   OF   EDUCATION 
UNIVERSITY   OF   WASHINGTON 


THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1913 

AU  rights  reserved 

2y5d89 


\S(^1 


Copyright,  1913, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  September,  1913. 


Norfaoolr  l$xt99 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

There  is  nothing  more  characteristic  of  our  present 
tendencies  toward  a  more  complete  social  democracy 
than  the  growing  demand  on  the  part  of  local  communi- 
ties, everywhere,  and  of  every  sort,  for  a  more  funda- 
mental knowledge  of  themselves  and  their  own  native 
resources,  physical  and  moral.  This  growing  demand 
is  natural  and  healthy.  It  marks  the  end  of  social 
superstition,  and  the  real  beginning  of  that  social  self- 
dependence  and  self-sufficiency  which  are  promised  in 
the  completer  developments  of  the  scientific  view  of  the 
world. 

Communities  everywhere  are  making  "surveys"  :  we 
are  taking  account  of  what  we  have  in  the  way  of  de- 
veloped and  undeveloped  resources,  both  physical  and 
moral,  in  order  that  we  may  know  what  we  may  count 
upon  for  community  defense,  community  development, 
community  pride,  and  that  finer  and  wider  community 
life  which  must  come,  if  it  comes  at  all,  out  of  the  still 
unknown  resources  of  our  communities. 

This  book  is  offered  by  men  and  women  of  experience 
as  a  tool  for  the  better  development  of  this  essential 
social  understanding  in  rural  and  village  communities. 
It  is  not  only  a  book  to  be  read  and  studied^  in  the  ordi- 
nary sense  of  that  word :  it  is  also  and  much  more  a 
tool  of  inquiry,  by  the  use  of  which  teachers,  ministers, 


VI  PREFACE 

and  social  leaders  in  all  lines  may  be  enabled  to  reach 
that  more  complete  knowledge  of  their  immediate  com- 
munities without  which  social  leadership  becomes  mere 
irresponsible  authority. 

Here  set  forth  are  the  great  main  lines  of  community 
interest,  activity,  and  resource.  In  most  communities 
these  activities  "just  go  on,"  these  resources  Ue  latent, 
unrelated,  undeveloped,  and  unknown.  This  book  pre- 
sents three  aspects  of  each  of  these  lines  of  interest. 
Firsts  each  subject  is  represented  in  a  general  way  as  an 
aspect  of  the  life  and  resources  of  any  community. 
This  is  intended  to  call  the  student's  attention  to  the 
social  wealth  that  may  be  found  in  any  community  in 
connection  with  our  common  interests  and  resources  of 
life.  Second,  by  means  of  insistent  questions  in  con- 
nection with  each  subject,  the  student  is  directed  to  spe- 
cific phases  of  that  subject  which  should  be  looked  for 
and  very  thoroughly  studied  in  each  local  community. 
These  questions  are  not  exhaustive,  but  suggestive  of 
the  possible  lines  of  investigation  open  to  those  who 
would  know  their  own  communities.  Third,  a  brief 
bibUography  of  the  subject  is  included,  giving  the  seri- 
ous student  hints  of  materials  by  which  his  aroused 
interest  may  reach  out  into  contact  with  knowledge  and 
progress  along  the  same  lines  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
until  his  community  becomes  the  world. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  book  will  help  the  rural  and 
village  teacher,  especially,  to  become  more  completely 
a  part  of  the  actual  life  and  hope  and  purpose  of  the 
community.     The  natural  social  and  moral  resources  of 


PREFACE  VU 

our  country  and  village  communities  are  enormous,  but 
they  are  being  pathetically  wasted  by  reason  of  the 
lack  of  insight  into  the  real  processes  of  education  on 
the  part  of  so  many  of  our  teachers. 

We  are  indebted  to  all  the  past  and  much  of  the 
present  for  the  materials  of  this  book.  It  is  a  contri- 
bution to  that  growing  "  social  conversation  "  by  which 
we  are  talking  out,  and,  to  some  extent,  thinking  out, 
the  social  problems  of  our  times.  Whoever  finds  help 
in  it  is  indebted  to  society  to  add  still  further  to  that 
same  "  social  conversation."  This  is  a  time  when  the 
help  of  every  one  is  needed :  for  the  understanding  of 
his  own  community  and  its  social  problems,  and  for 
the  sympathetic  instruction  of  his  neighbors  and  neigh- 
boring community  toward  the  same  end.  The  world 
grows  one  as  fast  as  knowledge  comes  to  break  down 
old  superstitions  and  prejudices.  Communities  will  be 
everlastingly  variant  because  their  resources  are  variant ; 
but  communities  will  become  more  and  more  of  one 
general  soul    as    their    self-knowledge  becomes   more 

complete. 

JOSEPH   K.    HART. 

The  University  of  Washington, 
Seattle,  February  i6,  19 13. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PACK 

I.    Introduction  —  The  Community  as  Educator    .        i 
By  Joseph  K.  Hart,  Assistant  Professor  of  Education, 
University  of  Washington. 

II.    The  Physical  Resources  of  the  Community      .      ii 
By  John  Lee  Coulter,  Expert  Special  Agent  for  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  the  Census,  Washington,  D.C. 

III.  The  Human  Resources  of  the  Community.        .      29 

By  Joseph  K.  Hart. 

IV.  The  Economic  Activities  of  the  Community      .      38 

By  John  Lee  Coulter. 

V.    Community  Health,  Hygiene,  and  Sanitation  .      66 
By  Dr.  Eugene  Kelley,  State  Board  of  Health,  Seattle, 
Washington. 

VI.    The  Local  History  of  the  Community       .        .      83 
By  Reuben  Gold  Thwaites,  LL.D.,  Superintendent  of 
Wisconsin  State  Historical  Society;  Lecturer  in  History 
in  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 

VII.    The  Political  Life  of  the  Community       .        .      92 
By  Joseph  K.  Hart. 

VIII.    The  Development  of  Outdoor  Beautification 

IN  A  Community 106 

By  J.  Horace  McFarland,  President  of  the  American 
Civic  Association,  Harrisburg,  Pa. 

IX.    Economy  and  Beauty  in  the  Homes  of  the  Com- 
munity      120 

By  Anna  R.  Van  Meter,  Sometime  Instructor  in  Do- 
mestic Science  in  the  University  of  Illinois. 
ix 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  FAGB 

X.    The  General  Social  Life  of  the  Community    .     131 
By  Joseph  K.  Hart. 

XI.    Recreation,  Play,  and  Amusements  in  the  Com- 
munity      143 

By  Myron  T.   Scudder,   Lecturer   in   the    Montessori 
House  of  Childhood,  New  York,  formerly  Principal  New 
)  Paltz  State  Normal  School. 

^'XIL     Moral  and  Social  Deficiencies   of   the   Com- 
munity      166 

By  Professor  Walter  G.  Beach,  Department  of  Sociol- 
ogy, University  of  Washington. 

J  XIII.    The  Religious  Life  of  the  Community       .        .    176 
By  Rev.  Christopher  C.  Thurber,  Hinton,  West  Virginia. 

XIV.    The  Intellectual  Life  of  the  Community         .     197 
By  Mary  E.  Downey,  Organizer  for  State  Library  Com- 
mission, Columbus,  Ohio. 

^  XV.    The    Community    Life    as    Curriculum    of    the 

School 213 

By  Professor  Harold  W.  Foght,  Chief  of  Field  Service 
in  Rural  Education,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

XVI.    Community  Activity  in  the  Administration  of 

Education 244 

By  George  W.  Knorr,  Special  Field  Agent,  Bureau  of 
Statistics,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C. 


EDUCATIONAL    RESOURCES   OF 

VILLAGE   AND    RURAL 

COMMUNITIES 


EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES  OF 
VILLAGE  AND  RURAL  COMMUNITIES 

CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

The  Community  as  Educator 

"The  (school)  is  too  much  with  us:  late  and  soon, 
(Cramming,  forgetting)  we  lay  waste  our  powers : 
Little  we  see  in  Nature  that  is  ours ; 
We  have  given  our  hearts  away,  a  sordid  boon ! 
The  Sea  that  bares  her  bosom  to  the  moon ; 
The  winds  that  will  be  howling  at  all  hours, 
And  are  up-gathered  new  like  sleeping  flowers ; 
For  this,  for  everything,  we  are  out  of  tune ; 
It  moves  us  not.  —  Great  God  !    I'd  rather  be 
A  Pagan  suckled  in  a  creed  outworn : 
So  might  I,  standing  on  this  pleasant  lea, 
Have  glimpses  that  would  make  me  less  forlorn ; 
Have  sight  of  Proteus  rising  from  the  sea ; 
Or  hear  old  Triton  blow  his  wreathed  horn." 

In  the  older  days  of  the  primitive  community  when 
life  was  centered  in  the  immediate  activities  and  interests 
of  a  comparatively  small  group,  practically  all  the  edu- 
cation of  the  younger  generation  went  on  unconsciously 
in  the  midst  of,  and  by  means  of,  the  social  life  and 
industries    of    the    community    itself.    Here    was    the 


''2^ : '-'  ? ,'' ;  '• , .'  ' :  :|:ri7C^tjonal  resources 

physical  world  in  which  they  made  their  home ;  here  the 
resources  by  which  they  sustained  themselves;  the 
industries  that  supported  them,  that  bound  them 
together,  that  determined  the  level  of  their  living,  and 
the  bent  of  their  thinking;  the  forms  of  government 
and  social  organization  which  unconsciously  molded 
the  young ;  the  religious  Hfe  that  helped  to  enforce  the 
controls  that  society  needed  for  its  preservation;  the 
traditions,  the  legends  and  the  history  that  brought  the 
past  to  the  support  of  the  authorities  of  the  present; 
the  amusements,  the  games  and  the  general  social  Hfe 
that  marked  the  times  of  leisure  from  work  and  from 
war:  all  these  elements  and  others  were  involved  in 
the  common  life  of  the  community  group,  and  day  by 
day,  even  moment  by  moment,  they  wrought  their 
silent  and  effective  spell  over  the  development  and 
destiny  of  the  children  and  the  whole  community. 

There  was  no  school  in  the  formal  sense  of  the  word ; 
and  because  there  was  none,  all  education  was  practical, 
thorough,  and  moral :  practical  because  wrought_out  of 
the  very  life  of  the  community;  thorough  because  the 
tests  were  those  of  life  itself,  and  none  could  call  himself 
educated  until  the  active  world  had  passed  upon  his 
qualifications ;  and  moral  because,  both  in  purpose  and 
in  content,  it  was  the  community's  own  life  and  purpose 
wrought  into  the  life  and  purpose  of  the  maturing  child ; 
such  education  was  complete  only  when  the  child  was 
thoroughly  equipped  with  the  desire  and  skill  to  con- 
tinue the  traditions  and  the  interests  of  the  community. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

We  have  lost  so  much  of  this :  no,  it  is  not  lost,  it  is 
merely  lost  to  sight.  "The  (school)  is  too  much  with 
W5."  The  school  was  a  social  invention,  growing  up 
(as  all  inventions  do)  for  the  purpose  of  helping  the 
community,  as  it  became  more  complex,  to  do  some 
things  which  it  could  no  longer  do  in  the  old,  unconscious 
ways.  But,  Uke  any  institution,  the  school  quickly 
learned  how  to  claim  everything  in  its  field,  until  to-day, 
the  average  person  never  thinks  of  Education  as  being 
anything  beyond  those  things  which  the  schools  give, 
or  convey,  or  bestow. 

That  is  to  say,  we  think  very  Httle  to-day  of  the  pre- 
dominant part  which  the  common  hfe  of  the  commimity 
played  in  the  education  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  prim- 
itive world;  we  think  very  little  of  the  fundamental 
part  which  the  common  forces  and  elements  of  the 
community  still  play,  in  spite  of  all  our  schools,  in  the 
actual  education  of  our  boys  and  girls.  We  are  bhnd 
to  the  deepest  facts  of  our  educational  situation.  We 
give  our  schools  credit  for  educational  results  in  which 
the  schools  have  had  no  part,  and  by  so  doing  we  are 
not  only  blind  to  the  actual  facts  of  education,  but  we 
stand  in  the  way  of  that  larger  growth  and  development 
of  the  schools  that  is  so  necessary  if  our  modern  educa- 
tion is  ever  to  find  again  that  truly  practical  character, 
that  social  thoroughness  and  that  real  morahty  which 
were  the  striking  characteristics  of  the  education  of  the 
older,  simpler  world. 

And   the   forces  and  elements   for   this   community 


4  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

education  are  all  with  us.  Not  that  alone ;  for  in  spite 
of  our  ignoring  and  our  ignorance  of  these  facts,  our 
boys  and  girls  are  being  educated  constantly  by  the 
communities  in  which  they  live.  But,  if  we  could 
get  our  eyes  open,  we  could  make  these  community 
elements  and  forces  mean  infinitely  more  than  they 
now  mean  in  the  real  education  of  our  children. 
For  example,  in  the  wooded  sections  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  there  is  a  wonderfully  rich  and  varied  bird 
life.  But  the  average  schoolboy  learns  to  know 
half  a  dozen  common  birds  by  name:  the  rest  are 
"  sparrows,"  etc. ;  yet  here  are  hundreds  of  birds  that 
come  and  go  with  the  seasons  !  And  this  is  a  simple  illus- 
tration. 

In  this  book  the  effort  is  being  made  to  help  the 
teachers  in  rural  and  village  schools,  and  social  leaders 
of  all  sorts  in  local  communities,  to  become  conscious  of 
the  great  worlds  of  interest  and  possibility  that  in  some 
degree  even  now  are  helping  to  mold  the  lives  and  pur- 
poses of  the  children;  but  which,  rightly  understood 
and  appreciated,  can  be  molded  in  turn  until  their 
molding  of  the  childlife  shall  be  to  the  ends  of  practical 
understanding,  through  development,  and  complete 
moralization  of  the  growing  child. 

What  are  these  community  elements  and  interests? 
The  physical  resources  of  the  community  condition  all 
the  life  and  action  of  the  child  as  well  as  of  the  commu- 
nity. The  older  human  beings  of  the  community  inevi- 
tably determine  the  social  world  within  which  the  child 


INTRODUCTION  S 

shall  grow  up  to  social  maturity  and  responsibility. 
The  economic  relationships  and  industrial  life  of  the 
community  will  largely  determine  the  way  he  will  think 
and  talk,  the  range  of  his  opportunities  and  the  bent 
of  his  common  interests.  The  health  of  the  community, 
its  intelligent  care  for  health,  its  interests,  or  lack  of  in- 
terest, in  hygiene  and  sanitation  will  determine  largely 
the  efficiency  and  energy  of  the  growing  child.  He  will 
feed  upon  the  traditions,  the  folk  tales,  the  heroic  stories, 
the  desires,  the  prejudices,  the  hatreds,  the  feud&,  and 
the  inherent  friendships  of  the  community:  its  people 
shall  be  his  people,  and  its  gods  his  gods.  The  com- 
munity government  will  tend  to  control  and  manipulate 
his  chances  of  life;  it  will  make  a  fine  and  noble  life 
possible,  or  it  will  tend  to  produce  conditions  that  will 
kill  off  all  the  chances  of  complete  living.  The  out-of- 
doors  will  nurture  him  and  feed  his  imagination,  or  it 
will  remain  a  sordid  and  low  thing,  to  be  manipulated 
for  the  sake  of  profit.  The  very  home  itself  will  reflect 
the  inner  life  of  the  individual,  just  as  he  reflects  the  inner 
life  of  the  community :  the  home  will  be  a  place  of  beauty 
and  life  and  culture,  or  it  will  be  in  some  other  degree 
removed  from  the  level  of  the  den  of  the  wild  beast. 
The  general  social  Hfe  of  the  community  will  inspire  him 
and  draw  him  out  and  fill  him  with  social  aspirations 
and  the  finer  social  sympathies,  or  it  will  tend  in  some 
degree  to  destroy  all  these  in  him.  With  wholesome 
recreation  and  play  and  with  social  amusements  he  will 
recover  his  strength  spent  in  the  work  of  the  day  and  the 


O  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

week,  or  through  all  his  childhood  by  playful  exercise 
prepare  himself  for  the  serious  doings  of  his  maturer 
years.  By  the  social  idealism  of  the  rehgious  life  of  the 
community  he  will  be  able  to  link  his  Kfe  with  the  ideal 
purposes  of  the  race ;  or  if  these  be  wanting  he  will  find 
a  life  on  the  more  mean  levels  of  existence.  And  in  the 
provisions  which  the  community  shall  have  made  or  shall 
make  by  which  the  streams  of  knowledge  from  all  the 
golden  hills  of  the  past  and  present  shall  flow  into  the  com- 
munity will  his  intellectual  life  be  enriched  or  destroyed. 

And  blessed  is  that  community  in  which  there  are 
leaders  who  are  wise  enough  to  have  realized  that  their 
own  community  is,  historically,  a  part  of  the  story  of 
man  in  all  the  ages,  and  geographically  a  part  of  the 
home  of  man ;  and  that  in  its  life  and  interests  and  ac- 
tivities may  be  found  something  akin  to  everything  the 
race  has  wrought  at  any  time,  in  any  place ;  that  there- 
fore its  own  activities  and  industries,  and  interests,  and 
social  necessities  may  quite  as  well  be  the  central  facts 
and  factors  in  the  schooling  of  its  children  as  the  activi- 
ties and  industries  and  interests  of  a  world  far  removed 
in  time  and  space.  All  about  the  children,  and  the  adults, 
too,  surge  and  flow  these  forces  and  elements  of  the  com- 
munity life.  Into  the  midst  of  them  the  children  are 
born  and  grow  to  their  maturity.  How  little  the  schools 
seem  when  we  set  them  over  against  this  surging,  insist- 
ent life  of  the  community  ! 

And  yet,  how  much  the  schools  might  become  if  we 
could  but  see  them  in  terms  of  their  original  significance. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

and  in  their  proper  relationship  to  the  life  of  the  com- 
munity. Once  there  were  no  schools,  because  they  were ' 
not  needed :  the  common  life  of  the  market  place,  and 
the  religious  ceremonial  filled  the  child's  days  with  ac- 
tive employment,  his  mind  with  social  intelligence  and 
purpose,  and  his  heart  with  reverence  and  sympathetic 
fear.  But  as  people  came  closer  together,  and  life  be- 
came more  complex  and  involved,  the  education  of 
the  child  became  more  technical  and  complicated; 
a  profession  of  teachers  arose,  and  the  school  became 
an  educational  instrument  of  the  community.  But 
the  old  elements  and  forces  were  still  existent.  The 
school  did  not,  —  it  could  not,  —  do  away  with  them. 
It  was  developed  to  supplement  in  definite  ways  forces 
already  in  existence.  It  was  not  to  supplant  those 
forces,  nor  ignore  them.  And,  because  it  was  the  last 
of  the  social  institutions,  developed  to  meet  a  social 
need,  it  would  have  been  the  part  of  wisdom  for  the  school 
to  be  modest,  and  to  learn  to  adapt  itself  to  the  changing 
conditions  in  the  life  of  the  community,  striving  ever  to 
do  those  things  which  were  not  being  done  by  some  other 
element  of  the  community's  life. 

All  about  us  are  the  contributions  which  are  being 
made  to  education  by  those  more  primitive  elements 
of  the  community  which  are  far  more  fundamental  to 
its  welfare  than  is  the  school.  These  contributions 
are  largely  unintentional,  incidental,  accidental,  — 
all  the  more  effective  just  because  of  these  facts. 
What  is  the  school  to  do?      Shall  it,  also,  insist  upon 


8  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

its  purely  institutional,  i.e.,  its  traditional,  status,  and 
upon  being  just  as  unintentional,  incidental,  and  acci- 
dental as  the  other  elements  of  our  social  life?  That 
ill  becomes  its  protestations  of  intellectual  leader- 
ship. Should  not  the  school  and  the  teacher  look  deeply 
into  the  life  of  the  community,  surveying  with  thought- 
ful care  all  the  resources,  activities,  interests,  and  elements 
that,  within  the  community  and  its  organic  relationships, 
are  making  educational  impression  upon  the  growing 
children  ?  Should  they  not  determine  wherein  the  common 
life  and  activity  of  the  community  are  already  sufficiently 
educative,  and  should  they  not  be  wise  enough  to  let  such 
phases  of  life  alone,  giving  to  the  immediate  life  of  the 
people  such  share  in  the  education  of  the  children  as 
that  immediate  life  can  do  best  ?  And  should  they  not 
find  wherein  the  educative  direction  of  the  children  is 
being  imperfectly,  or  badly,  done,  and  should  they  not,  at 
those  places,  bravely  set  to  work,  so  supplementing, 
where  help  is  needed,  the  power  of  the  community  that 
created  the  school  ? 

There  follow  hereupon  thirteen  chapters  dealing 
with  these  primitive  elements  in  the  education  of  the 
child  and  the  community.  Then  follow  two  chapters 
dealing  with  the  sort  of  school  that  is  needed  to-day,  to 
meet  the  changed  needs  of  our  times.  We  have  been 
educating  our  children  away  from  their  homes,  their 
communities,  and  from  work,  toward  false  ideals  of  cul- 
ture, cosmopolitanism,  and  leisure.  The  only  true  cul- 
ture is  the  culture  that  comes  through  work  and  the 


INTRODUCTION  9 

love  of  work.  The  only  true  cosmopolitanism  is  that 
which  grows  out  of,  and  is  rooted  deep  within,  some  pres- 
ent community :  the  "  man  without  a  country  ''  is  the 
very  antithesis  of  a  true  cosmopolitan.  And  the  only 
leisure  that  is  not  vulgar  is  the  leisure  that  is  worthily 
won,  and  that  is  socially  above  criticism. 

The  Community  is  the  true  educational  institution. 
Within  the  community  there  is  work  that  educates  and 
provides  for  life;  within  the  community  are  the  roots 
of  the  cosmopolitanism  that  marks  the  truly  educated 
man;  within  the  community  there  is  room  for  a  noble 
and  dignified  culture  and  leisure  for  all.  Let  us  become 
aware  of  our  community  resources,  physical,  social,  moral. 
Let  us  recognize  the  part  they  play  and  will  always  play 
in  the  actual  education  of  our  boys  and  girls.  Let  us 
consciously  extend  their  powers  within  legitimate  bounds 
imtil  our  modern  education  within  the  community  shall 
be,  as  completely  as  possible,  natural,  immediate,  and 
free.  Let  us  organize  our  socially  supplementary  in- 
stitution,— the  school, — until  it  shall  adequately  reen- 
f orce  the  work  of  education  where  it  is  weak  and  supply 
it  where  it  is  wanting.  So,  and  only  so,  will  the  child 
become  really  educated,  the  community  find  education 
genuine,  practical,  thorough,  and  vitally  moral,  and  the 
school  become  in  our  times  what  it  was  originally  in- 
tended to  be,  —  the  social  instrument  for  doing  those 
things  of  an  educational  nature  which  are  not  already 
being  done  more  effectively  by  the  primitive  and  un- 
conscious influences  of  the  community's  common  life. 

J.  K.  H. 


lO  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Elam.    Outlines  of  Rural  Community  Life. 

Henderson.    Catechism  for  Social  Observation. 

Henderson.    Social  Duties. 

Bailey,  L.  H.  Survey  Idea  in  Country  Life  Work.  (Pamphlet, 
19  pp.  Address  the  author  at  Cornell  University,  Ithaca, 
N.Y.) 

Bailey,  L.  H.    Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture.    4  v. 

Crouch,  Rev.  F.  N.  A  Social  Service  Program  for  the  Parish. 
(Pamphlet  of  the  Joint  Commission  on  Social  Service  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  24  pp.  May  be  had  upon 
request  of  the  author,  157  Montague  St.,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.) 

Department  of  Church  and  Country  Life.  A  Rural  Survey  in 
Missouri.  (1910,  42  pp.  Presbyterian  Board  of  Home 
Missions,  156  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City.) 

Department  of  Church  and  Country  Life.  A  Rural  Survey  in 
Pennsylvania.  1910,  40  pp.  Presbyterian  Board  of  Home 
Missions,  156  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City.) 

Dunn.     Community  and  the  Citizen. 

Earp,  Edwin  L.,  Ph.D.  The  Social  Engineer.  (Eaton  &  Hains, 
150  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City,  191 1,  326  pp.  $1.25. 
A  book  of  special  practical  value  to  country  ministers.) 

Galpin,  C.  J.  A  Method  of  Making  a  Social  Survey  of  a  Rural 
Community.  (Circular  of  Information  No.  29,  January, 
191 2,  II  pp.  The  University  of  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  Madison,  Wis.) 

Gillette,  John  H.  The  Drift  to  the  City  in  Relation  to  the  Rural 
Problem.  (American  Journal  of  Sociology,  March,  191 1. 
V.  16,  pp.  645-67.  No.  5.  University  of  Chicago  Press, 
Chicago,  111.     50  cents.) 

Butterfield.     Chapters  in  Rural  Progress.     (Chicago,  1908.) 
'^■'~       Anderson,  Wilbert  L.     The  Country  Town. 

Plunket,  Sir  Horace  L.  The  Problem  of  Rural  Life  in  America, 
(New  York,  191 1.) 


a;.' 


CHAPTER  n 
PHYSICAL  RESOURCES  OF  THE  COMMUNITY 

Characteristics  of  Physical  Resources 

Introductory.  —  No  comprehensive  study  of  rural 
conditions  or  rural  problems  can  be  made  without  know- 
ing first  of  all  something  of  the  physical  resources  which 
are  the  foundation  for  the  agricultural  activities.  The 
same  statement  may  be  made  with  equal  force  concern- 
ing an  industrial  community.  I  use  the  term  "  physical 
resources  "  in  its  broadest  sense.  We  may  well  start 
any  investigation  bearing  in  mind  that  we  have  two 
primary  factors  to  deal  with.  These  are  the  human 
resources  of  the  community  and  the  physical  resources. 
After  we  have  clearly  in  mind  the  characteristics  and 
quantity  of  the  physical  resources  and  the  characteristics 
and  nimiber  of  the  human  resources,  we  are  ready  to 
begin  an  interpretation  of  the  struggle  of  the  human 
factor  to  make  a  living.  It  surely  must  be  acknowledged 
by  all  that  man's  time  is  largely  devoted  to  the  struggle 
of  making  a  living,  and  since  this  struggle  is  largely  an 
effort  on  his  part  to  control  and  utiHze  nature  to  the  great- 
est advantage,  it  seems  necessary  first  to  investigate 
these  two  original  factors.  It  is  true  that  many  men  do 
not  come  into  contact  with  the  physical  resources  in  their 


12  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

struggle  for  a  living.  There  are  those  who  prey  upon 
their  fellow  men,  and  there  are  those  who  serve  those 
who  are  struggling  with  the  physical  resources,  but  the 
general  statement  is  none  the  less  true  that  the  great 
masses  of  humanity  are  engaged  during  the  major  part 
of  their  time  working  with  nature  and  her  products. 

By  some  good  fortune,  it  has  been  arranged  by  an  un- 
seen power  that  man  does  not  need  to  struggle  during 
all  of  his  waking  hours  in  order  to  make  a  living.  Some 
of  his  time  is  spent  communing  with  his  fellow  men. 
Man  is  a  gregarious  animal.  On  account  of  having 
the  power  of  speech  and  other  such  powers,  he  delights 
in  taking  advantage  of  their  presence  and  desires  when- 
ever possible  to  get  in  touch  with  his  fellow  men.  Hence, 
we  have  social  activities.  Some  of  his  time  is  spent  in 
religion.  The  general  custom  throughout  the  country 
is  for  at  least  one  day  a  week  to  be  set  aside  for  reHgious 
activities  and  rest.  The  time  taken  for  social  activities 
is  irregularly  distributed  over  the  year.  There  are 
scattered  days  throughout  the  year  when  people  leave 
their  labors  and  engage  in  social  intercourse.  Evenings 
very  generally  are  devoted  more  or  less  to  the  same  pur- 
pose. Certain  seasons  of  the  year  when  economic  ac- 
tivities call  for  less  than  normal  amounts  of  time  are 
devoted  more  or  less  to  social  life.  PoUtical  activities 
demand  consideration.  But  during  an  average  year 
probably  not  more  than  a  very  few  hours  are  given  to 
politics.  The  average  man  reads  some,  meets  with  other 
men  from  time  to  time  for  discussion,  and  probably 


PHYSICAL   RESOURCES   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  1 3 

one  or  two  days  during  the  year  goes  to  cast  his  ballot. 
None  the  less,  political  activities  demand  some  time; 
and,  more  and  more  as  people  find  the  struggle  for  a  liv- 
ing more  intricate,  the  political  problem  calls  for  special 
consideration.  Then  there  are  recreation  and  other 
activities  of  a  similar  nature.  I  merely  mention  these 
to  emphasize  to  the  reader  that  starting  as  we  do  with 
the  physical  and  human  resources,  these  must  be  studied 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  possible  a  better  understanding 
of  the  activities  of  the  human  factor. 

Topography.  —  In  this  study  I  shall  limit  myself  to 
an  analysis  of  conditions  in  so  far  as  they  affect  rural 
communities.  The  problems  of  all  industrial  centers 
can  be  studied  in  somewhat  the  same  way,  but  different 
influences  have  to  be  considered.  Probably  no  influence 
is  more  important  upon  the  lives  of  people  than  the 
topography  of  the  community  under  consideration. 
The  status  of  the  farmers  at  any  particular  time  and  the 
agricultural  activities  are  entirely  different  in  the  rough 
and  rugged  country  from  those  in  the  level  or  sUghtly 
undulating  country.  Consider  for  instance  the  problems 
confronting  a  community  of  one  thousand  people  settled 
in  narrow  valleys  with  precipitous  mountain  walls  on 
either  side.  They  are  shut  in  from  the  outside  world. 
It  is  difficult  to  get  into  communication  with  outside 
activities.  For  this  reason  the  customs  of  the  people 
at  the  time  of  entering  the  valley  are  apt  to  linger  long. 
New  ideas  are  slowly  accepted.  The  educational,  reli- 
gious and  social  activities  of  the  people  are  greatly  in- 


14  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

fluenced.  Compare  for  a  moment  such  a  community 
with  a  community  of  one  thousand  people  in  a  level 
prairie  section.  Try  to  determine  to  what  extent  the 
differences  are  due  to  the  differences  in  topography. 
Compare  as  an  illustration  the  recreations  of  the  people. 
If  both  communities  are  in  the  northern  climate,  the 
sports  of  the  mountain  community  will  be  skating  on 
the  little  river  during  the  winter,  sliding  down  hills, 
skeeing,  etc.,  and  in  the  summer  it  will  be  climbing  over 
hills  through  the  timbered  valleys,  hunting  in  the  moun- 
tain forests,  and  fishing  in  the  mountain  streams.  In 
the  prairie  community  there  may  be  heard  jingHng  bells 
in  the  winter  time,  and  cutter  and  sleigh  rides  will  be 
the  favorite  pastime.  Snowshoes  may  be  found.  Skat- 
ing would  be  possible  on  artificially  constructed  lakes. 
Perchance  snow  boats  would  be  found,  and  it  might 
be,  if  the  community  were  in  the  neighborhood  of  a 
lake,  ice  boats  and  skeeing  would  be  a  favorite  pas- 
time. In  the  summer,  baseball  and  other  similar  games 
would  prevail. 

But  agricultural  activites  are  more  influenced  probably 
than  are  the  social,  religious,  educational,  or  recreative 
activities.  In  the  prairie  country,  large  machines  drawn 
by  many  horses  pass  over  the  level  land;  great  fields 
of  grain  will  flourish.  In  the  mountain  valleys,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  few  rows  of  corn,  small  patches  of  cereals, 
small  machines,  each  man  with  one  work  animal,  or 
probably  doing  the  work  by  hand,  will  be  found.  This 
is  the  difference  in  methods  of  conducting  agriculture 


PHYSICAL   RESOURCES   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  1 5 

forced  upon  people  by  differences  in  topography.  Those 
who  are  more  prosperous  because  they  have  found  a 
better  community  should  not  be  given  too  much  credit, 
while  those  who  are  not  prosperous  because  they  are 
combating  with  a  harsh  environment  should  not  be 
too  severely  condemned  because  of  their  lack  of  pros- 
perity. In  the  mountain  valley,  the  people  may  be  kept 
busy  during  many  weeks  of  each  year  repairing  damages 
done  because  of  the  topography.  The  water  rushing 
down  the  hillside  may  wash  away  their  homes,  or  maybe 
destroy  their  fields;  an  overflowing  river  may  do  great 
damage.  If  the  farmer  attempts  to  market  the  product 
of  his  farm  he  may  have  to  spend  much  time  in  the 
construction  of  roads  over  the  hills  and  after  having 
constructed  the  roads,  he  may  find  it  necessary  to  haul 
very  small  quantities  of  the  product  because  of  the 
steep  hills  that  must  be  passed  over.  But  there  are 
disadvantages  to  the  community  on  the  prairie  which 
sometimes  are  as  serious  as  the  disadvantages  found  in 
mountain  valleys. 

In  beginning  a  study  of  a  rural  community,  it  would 
be  well  to  make  a  careful  survey  of  the  topography  as  a 
starting  point  in  order  that  the  influences  may  be  observed 
throughout  the  investigation.  Much  data  may  be  se- 
cured from  the  Geological  Survey,  at  Washington,  D.C., 
which  would  be  helpful  to  any  student.  Some  state 
departments  also  furnish  data  and  many  physical  geog- 
raphies furnish  a  basis  for  such  study. 

Soils.  —  Topography  is  only  one  of  the  many  factors 


l6  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

to  be  considered.  Turn  your  attention  for  a  moment 
to  two  communities  of  farmers  living  in  a  prairie  country 
with  topography  and  all  other  factors  the  same,  except 
that  one  community  is  in  a  district  of  very  rich  soils, 
whereas  the  other  lives  upon  very  poor  soil.  It  is  true 
that  the  rehgious,  educational,  and  social  activities 
may  be  the  same  except  in  so  far  as  these  are  influenced 
by  the  prosperity  of  the  farmers,  but  the  agricultural 
activities  will  vary  widely.  In  order,  therefore,  to 
interpret  the  status  of  either  community  we  must  in- 
vestigate very  early  the  general  character  of  the  soils, 
whether  they  are  rich  loams,  alkaH,  sandy  soils,  clay 
soils,  or  what  not.  I  have  in  mind  as  I  write  two  groups 
of  farmers,  both  from  the  same  country  originally.  One 
group  came  ahead  of  the  other  by  twenty  years  and  found 
large  tracts  of  very  rich  soils,  free,  surveyed,  and  ready 
to  be  occupied.  The  other  group  came  after  all  of  this 
area  had  been  taken,  and  they  were  practically  forced 
to  settle  upon  much  less  desirable  soils  of  the  same  general 
topography,  climate,  and  rainfall.  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  state  that  the  second  group,  although  coming 
to  this  country  at  a  much  more  opportune  time,  has  not 
prospered  nearly  to  the  same  extent  as  has  the  former 
group.  The  soils  are  not  adapted  to  the  best  paying 
crops.  They  are  sandy  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  con- 
struct good  roads.  Much  more  labor  is  necessary  in 
the  field  in  order  to  produce  a  reasonable  crop.  The 
farmers  must  spend  much  time  carrying  fertilizers  to 
the  fields  in  order  to  make  a  reasonable  crop.    In  this 


PHYSICAL   RESOURCES   OF  THE   COMMUNITY  1 7 

second  community,  because  of  a  less  bountiful  nature, 
the  farmers  must  spend  much  more  time  than  otherwise 
struggling  for  a  living.  There  is  less  time  to  build  roads, 
to  improve  their  homes,  and  to  build  schools  and 
churches.  There  is  also  less  money  to  buy  materials 
and  the  farmers  in  this  second  conmiunity  are  less  happy 
and  much  less  prosperous  than  those  in  the  first.  I  am 
unable  to  attribute  this  to  anything  less  than  fortuitous 
circumstances.  The  first  group  of  farmers  came  at  an 
opportune  time.  They  found  nature  bountiful,  —  physi- 
cal resources  were  all  that  could  be  asked.  The  topo- 
graphy was  right  from  every  viewpoint  and  the  soils  were 
rich.  It  was  not  because  the  farmer  waved  the  magic 
wand  that  the  crops  were  bountiful.  It  was  not  because 
the  farmers  were  more  foresighted  that  they  are  now 
more  prosperous.  They  took  advantage  of  what  they 
found,  but  the  second  group  of  farmers  did  Ukewise 
with  less  result. 

It  is  possible  at  the  present  time  to  secure  a  great  deal 
of  data  concerning  the  character  of  soils  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  States.  The  Bureau  of  Soils,  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.,  has  made  many 
surveys  in  which  they  have  studied  very  carefully  the 
different  kinds  of  soils,  their  adaptabihty  to  agriculture, 
and  their  proper  treatment  in  order  to  get  the  best  re- 
sults. These  reports  are  available  for  all  who  may  wish 
to  write,  and  it  would  be  wise  for  students  to  turn  first 
to  the  Bureau  of  Soils,  and  find  what  areas  have  been  care- 
fully studied  from  this  viewpoint.    After  the  student 


1 8  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

has  examined  these  surveys,  he  may  be  able  to  investigate 
more  thoroughly  than  he  otherwise  would  be  able  to  do. 
It  is  also  possible  at  the  present  time  to  secure  much 
data  concerning  the  individual  states  from  the  various 
state  departments,  agricultural  colleges,  and  agricultural 
experiment  stations.  Almost  every  experiment  station 
now  has  a  soil  chemist  and  soil  physicist.  These  men 
would  be  able  to  furnish  much  valuable  information  to 
the  students  within  their  respective  states.  A  careful 
student  going  into  any  community  to  study  conditions 
otherwise  should  keep  constantly  in  mind  the  influences 
of  the  soil,  and  by  talking  with  progressive  farmers 
might  be  able  to  secure  much  valuable  information  which 
would  help  him  to  interpret  the  activities  of  the  people 
and  to  explain  their  status. 

Precipitation.  —  If  the  study  is  to  be  thorough,  the 
student  of  rural  conditions  must  not  be  satisfied  with  a 
general  statement  of  the  topography  and  of  the  soils. 
He  must  go  into  this  in  great  detail,  and  then  must  ex- 
tend his  study  to  other  problems  of  rural  importance. 
Probably  no  characteristic  of  nature  is  more  significant 
than  that  pertaining  to  rainfall.  One  group  of  farmers 
may  settle  in  an  area  where  the  precipitation  is  excessive. 
They  may  find  it  necessary  to  build  dikes,  levees,  ditches, 
or  even  place  tiHng  at  frequent  intervals  on  the  farm  for 
drainage  purposes.  The  fact  that  the  country  has  too 
much  water  may  make  a  demand  for  higher  and  better 
bridges,  more  horses  and  other  work  animals,  more  ex- 
pensive machines  and  other  farm  equipments,  such  as 


PHYSICAL   RESOURCES   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  19 

wider  tired  carriages.  If  it  is  a  rolling  country,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  completely  change  the  system  of  agricult- 
ure from  that  practiced  in  a  level  country,  because  of  the 
washing  of  the  hillsides.  Different  kinds  of  drains  are 
necessary,  and  great  expense  may  be  incurred  from  the 
overflow  of  water.  This  excess  of  precipitation  may 
come  at  an  unfortunate  season  of  the  year,  and  make 
difficult  either  the  preparing  of  the  fields,  or  the  gather- 
ing of  the  crops.  Soils  may  be  fertile,  the  topography 
perfect  from  an  agricultural  standpoint,  the  temperature 
may  be  the  most  desirable  throughout  the  year,  but  with 
too  much  precipitation,  many  difficulties  arise.  Muddy 
roads  may  make  it  necessary  to  have  a  larger  number  of 
schoolhouses  because  it  is  impracticable  for  the  children 
to  travel  great  distances.  The  fear  of  rain  may  make  it 
necessary  to  have  halls  for  social  activities  instead  of 
outdoor  picnics.  Excessive  rains  may  mean  more  expen- 
sive bridges  across  streams,  more  substantial  founda- 
tions to  buildings,  and  a  greater  outlay  of  time,  effort, 
and  money. 

Compare  if  you  will  a  country  community  more  for- 
tunately located.  The  precipitation  is  just  sufficient 
for  the  needs  of  the  various  crops.  It  comes  at  the  right 
seasons  of  the  year.  It  falls  in  ample  quantities  for  all 
purposes  and  yet  not  too  much.  The  people  of  the 
community  may  spend  their  excess  time  in  building 
magnificent  homes,  constructing  efficient  highways, 
and  building  better  schools  and  churches.  Because 
of  good  roads  they  may  have  consoHdated  schools  and 


20  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

regular  transportation  for  the  children.  These  farmers 
are  more  prosperous  with  the  same  amount  of  effort 
and  will  have  telephones  and  other  means  of  communica- 
tion with  the  outside  world.  The  library  is  known  in  a 
community  of  this  kind,  whereas  it  may  be  imknown 
in  another  community. 

Still  another  group  of  farmers  may  settle  where  precipi- 
tation is  not  sufficient,  and  where  general  farming  is 
impossible  without  human  aid  in  the  supplying  of  water. 
Here  the  farmers  must  dig  ditches,  build  flues,  dig  wells, 
and  invest  in  pumps,  engines,  and  storage  reservoirs  in 
order  to  secure  and  keep  a  supply  of  water  sufficient  for 
growing  purposes,  and  after  this  is  done  they  must  give 
considerable  attention  and  many  hours  of  time  to  the 
work  of  regulating  the  supply.  Naturally  this  reduces 
the  amount  of  time  which  they  have  for  other  activities, 
and  therefore  it  is  mote  difficult  to  make  the  same  prog- 
ress. Any  attempt  to  make  a  rural  survey  without 
considering  the  relative  status  of  a  community  with  re- 
gard to  rainfall  must  be  a  failure.  It  is  very  important 
that  the  subject  of  rainfall  be  studied  in  close  relation- 
ship with  the  question  of  topography,  since  excessive 
water  must  be  carried  from  the  land  and  a  deficiency 
must  be  supplied,  and  both  of  these  must  be  largely 
affected  by  the  natural  slope  of  the  surface. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  which  should  be  emphasized 
that  in  communities  where  drainage  or  irrigation  is  car- 
ried on,  the  farmers  are  able  to  operate  much  smaller 
areas  of  land,  as  a  result  of  which  they  live  much  closer 


PHYSICAL   RESOURCES    OF   THE   COMMUNITY  21 

together.  In  a  more  densely  populated  rural  community, 
social  intercourse  is  more  possible,  educational  activities 
are  influenced,  and  the  community  as  a  whole  feels  the 
effects  of  the  system  under  which  they  Hve.  The  stu- 
dent must  not  overlook  these  facts  in  comparing  the 
status  of  the  activities  of  farmers  in  the  different  com- 
munities. It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  although 
the  farmer  who  devotes  much  time  to  irrigating  and 
draining  his  land  may  be  as  prosperous  as  the  farmer 
who  neither  drains  nor  irrigates,  by  this  extra  labor 
in  irrigating  and  draining,  the  farmer  is  much  more 
able  to  accurately  regulate  the  water  supply  and  by 
intensive  methods  he  produces  larger  crops  and  may  be 
fully  as  prosperous. 

It  is  possible  at  the  present  time  to  secure  from  the 
Weather  Bureau  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  at 
Washington,  D.C.,  a  very  large  amount  of  information 
concerning  annual  precipitation.  That  bureau  has 
stations  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  although 
it  would  not  be  possible  to  secure  an  exact  statement 
for  any  individual  county,  it  is  possible  to  secure  informa- 
tion for  every  part  of  the  United  States.  Not  only 
can  one  secure  the  average  precipitation  per  year  for  a 
series  of  years,  but  it  is  possible  to  find  the  amount  of 
rainfall  as  compared  with  the  amount  of  snowfall,  and 
this  statement  is  available  for  each  month  in  the  year 
as  well  as  for  the  entire  year.  It  is  easy,  therefore,  to 
prepare  a  statement  for  any  community  showing  the 
average  monthly  precipitation.    This  can  be  correlated 


22  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

with  the  seasons  and  the  stage  of  growth  of  the  various 
crops.  From  these  same  reports  it  is  possible  to  find 
out  whether  there  are  dry  years  and  wet  years  and  other 
uncertainties.  By  careful  study  of  the  data  available 
for  a  period  of  years  the  student  should  be  able  to  very 
readily  pass  judgment  upon  the  desirabiHty  of  any  com- 
munity from  the  standpoint  of  precipitation. 

Temperature.  —  Extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  as  im- 
portant as  extremes  in  the  amount  of  rainfall  or  extremes 
in  topography,  or  again  extremes  in  the  richness  of  soils. 
What  boots  it  if  the  soil  be  rich,  the  country  rolling  or 
level,  and  the  rainfall  ideal,  if  the  summers  are  so  short 
that  crops  cannot  mature,  or  if  the  winters  are  so  cold 
that  the  country  cannot  be  inhabited,  or  if  though  habi- 
table it  is  developed  with  great  difficulty  accompanied 
by  great  privations.  Or  again  consider  the  difficulties 
if  the  summers  are  long  and  the  days  scorching  hot  and 
labor  can  be  performed  only  with  the  greatest  suffering 
to  the  one  who  performs  physical  labors.  In  some 
districts  the  temperature  varies  from  the  most  extreme 
cold  to  the  most  extreme  heat,  necessitating  very  ex- 
pensive buildings  and  clothes  and  extraordinary  expendi- 
tures for  fuel  in  winter,  at  the  same  time  requiring 
facilities  for  keeping  the  products  of  the  farm  from  decay- 
ing in  the  extremely  hot  seasons.  The  people  who  must 
spend  much  time  making  warm  clothes,  building  warm 
buildings,  and  seeking  fuel  for  winter  use  or  putting  up 
ice,  or  otherwise  caring  for  the  products  during  the 
summer  or  in  other  ways  providing  against  unfavorable 


PHYSICAL   RESOURCES    OF   THE    COMMUNITY  23 

climatic  conditions,  cannot  make  as  much  progress  in 
developing  desirable  institutions,  such  as  schools,  as  can 
those  who  live  in  a  country  where  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold  are  almost  unknown,  or  where  conditions  are  so 
nearly  normal  that  time  is  available  to  do  other  things. 

Not  only  are  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  important  but 
irregularities  are  of  as  great  significance.  A  late  spring 
frost  may  make  impossible  the  production  of  fruit. 
It  may  likewise  destroy  growing  crops  and  necessitate 
a  second  planting.  A  district  which  has  to  contend  with 
this  abnormal  situation  is  handicapped.  Likewise  an 
early  fall  frost  may  result  in  frozen  fruits,  small  crops 
of  grain,  and  other  destructions.  It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, not  only  to  make  a  study  of  the  length  of  the  seasons 
and  the  extremes  of  temperature  but  to  make  a  study  for 
a  series  of  years  of  a  number  of  conditions  in  order  that 
judgment  may  be  passed  as  to  the  general  adaptability 
or  favorableness  of  the  district  under  consideration. 

Variations  and  uncertainties  in  temperature  influence 
social  activities  and  educational  activities  as  much  prob- 
ably as  they  affect  the  economic  activities  and  the  char- 
acter of  agriculture.  During  the  long  cold  winters 
in  some  northern  sections  of  the  United  States,  it  is  very 
difficult  because  of  the  very  cold  weather  and  the  bliz- 
zards to  get  to  school  if  the  schools  are  far  distant  from 
the  farms,  and  it  is  also  difficult  to  get  to  church  on 
Sundays  at  some  seasons  of  the  year;  likewise,  to  get 
to  social  gatherings  in  the  evenings  or  during  the  day. 
It  is  especially  difficult  to  plan  ahead  for  meetings  which 


24  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

are  desired  because  of  the  uncertainties  noted  above. 
The  people  in  those  districts  may  not  suffer  greatly  from 
the  extreme  cold  or  from  the  bhzzards  because  they  take 
the  necessary  precautions,  but  serious  inconveniences 
come  when  plans  are  made  ahead  for  specific  events. 

Probably  the  character  of  play  and  recreation  of  a 
community  is  governed  as  much  by  the  temperature  as 
any  other  one  feature.  In  a  northern  country  the 
winter  sports  such  as  skating,  skeeing,  sleighing,  snow- 
shoeing,  ice-boating,  etc.,  are  possible  only  because  of 
the  cold  weather.  These  are,  therefore,  impossible  in 
the  southern  parts  of  the  country.  In  the  North  for 
several  months  of  the  year  other  sports,  such  as  basket 
ball  and  indoor  games  are  extensively  indulged  in. 
Compared  with  these,  indoor  games,  are  almost  unknown 
in  the  southern  states.  The  Weather  Bureau,  referred 
to  above,  is  now  able  to  supply  the  most  detailed  informa- 
tion concerning  the  variations  in  temperature  for  various 
parts  of  the  United  States  for  a  considerable  number  of 
years. 

Conclusions.  —  We  have  now  briefly  reviewed  some  of 
the  more  important  characteristics  of  the  physical  re- 
sources of  the  country.  A  complete  and  comprehensive 
study  of  the  subject  would  necessitate  even  greater 
detail  than  I  have  suggested  above.  An  historical  study 
of  the  geology  would  doubtless  be  valuable  inasmuch  as 
this  would  make  possible  a  more  complete  report  of  the 
water  supply  and  the  structure  of  the  soil.  The  student 
who  has  followed  the  subject  this  far  will,  however,  be 


PHYSICAL  RESOURCES   OF   THE    COMMUNITY  2$ 

able  to  go  into  the  subject  as  far  as  time,  money,  or  in- 
clination permits.  I  have  outlined  here  only  four  funda- 
mental factors  which  must  necessarily  in  every  case  be 
taken  into  consideration  before  a  satisfactory  review 
of  the  rural  conditions  can  be  undertaken.  These  forces 
are  fundamental  in  determining  the  status  of  the  people 
in  any  rural  community,  and  all  the  activities  of 
the  rural  people  are  influenced  by  these  important 
factors.  Economic  activities  are  almost  controlled  by 
them.  The  poKtical  behefs  and  activities  are  materially 
influenced  by  the  characteristics  of  nature.  The  social, 
ethical,  aesthetic,  educational,  and  other  problems  are 
greatly  influenced  by  the  physical  environment. 

I  have  not  undertaken  in  this  chapter  any  discussion 
concerning  the  quantity  of  the  physical  resources.  This 
quantity  can  be  measured  in  terms  of  acres  of  land, 
tons  of  deposits,  and  value.  All  of  these  attempts  to 
measure  nature,  however,  presuppose  the  presence  of 
the  human  factor.  Before  taking  up  this  phase  of  the 
subject,  therefore,  it  will  be  necessary  to  briefly  survey 
the  human  resources  of  the  community.  After  we  have 
done  this,  we  may  take  up  the  activities  of  the  people. 
First  of  all  comes  the  economic  activities  or  the  struggle 
of  the  human  resources  with  the  physical  resources. 
After  this  the  other  activities  may  be  considered  more 
intelligently. 

J.  L.  C. 


26  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

SURVEY  OF  THE   PHYSICAL   RESOURCES   OF  THE   COM- 
MUNITY 

I.  In  what  ways  do  these  general  physical  characteristics  limit 
the  agricultural  productiveness  of  your  community?  To  what 
extent  are  the  natural  resources  of  the  community  developed? 
What  are  the  actual  resources  of  your  community? 
^  2.  What  mineral  resources  has  the  community?  Are  these 
being  properly  developed  and  conserved  ?  Is  there  any  exploita- 
tion of  these  resources  ?  Whose  fault  is  it  if  these  recources  are 
not  being  properly  utilized  for  the  welfare  of  the  community? 

3.  What  are  the  community's  timber  resources?  Are  these 
rescurces  being  properly  used  and  conserved  ?  What  is  the  com- 
munity's attitude  toward  conserving  its  resources?  Is  anything 
being  done  toward  reforestation? 

4.  What  are  the  soil  resources  of  your  community  ?  Have  you 
a  soil  chart,  or  is  such  a  chart  obtainable  ?  Is  there  any  one  in  the 
community  who  could  work  out  such  a  chart  ?  Are  the  schools 
of  the  community  doing  anything  to  develop  interest  in  the  soils 
of  the  community  ?  Is  there  a  clear  comprehension  on  the  part 
of  the  farmers  of  the  relations  of  soil  to  crops  and  the  need  of 
rotation?  Are  the  fields  of  the  community  being  destroyed  by 
erosion  of  any  kind  ?    Is  the  soil  growing  in  fertility  or  decreasing  ? 

5.  What  are  the  sources  of  supply  of  the  meats  used  by  the  com- 
munity? Of  the  fruits?  Of  the  cereals?  Of  the  potatoes  and 
other  like  vegetables?  To  what  extent  are  the  soil  resources  of 
the  community  being  properly  developed  by  means  of  the  most 
appropriate  kinds  of  plants  or  animals  ?  To  what  extent  are  the 
schools  of  the  community  helping  to  develop  an  intelligent  appre- 
ciation of  the  resources  of  the  community  and  the  possible  Unes 
of  production  within  the  community? 

6.  To  what  extent  can  new  resources  be  developed  within  the 
community  ?  What  latent  resources  has  the  community  ?  What 
possibilities  for  irrigation  or  for  draining  ?    What  chance  of  adding 


PHYSICAL   RESOURCES   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  27 

new  agricultural  fields  by  the  use  of  fertilizers  ?  Has  any  farmer 
in  the  community  applied  chemistry  to  the  determination  of  his 
soil  problems?  Would  "book  farming"  be  rejected  by  the 
farmers  of  the  community  ? 

7.  To  what  extent  does  the  community  work  up  its  own  raw 
materials  into  manufactured  products?  What  are  the  manu- 
facturing interests  of  the  community?  Are  these  being  run 
profitably?  Are  other  manufacturing  establishments  possible? 
Are  any  natural  resources  being  wasted  ?  To  what  extent  is  the 
community  suflScient  within  itself  for  its  own  necessary  supplies  ? 
What  part  of  the  community's  living  is  produced  by  itself? 
Where  does  it  secure  the  remainder?  Are  there  any  essential 
reasons  for  these  facts?  To  what  extent  do  the  schools  of  the 
community  share  in  the  whole  problem  of  the  development  and 
conservation  of  the  physical  resources  of  the  community  ?  What, 
if  anything,  is  being  done  by  the  schools  to  help  the  boys  and 
girls  appreciate  the  physical  wealth  of  the  community  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Hunt.     How  to  Choose  a  Farm. 

Taylor,  H.  C.  Agricultural  Economics.  (New  York,  1905.) 
BuRKETT,  C.  W.  Agriculture  for  Beginners.  (Boston,  1904.) 
Hatch,  K.  L.    Simple  Exercises  Illustrating  Some  Applications  of 

Chemistry  to  Agriculture.     (Washington,  1908.) 
Hopkins,  C.  G.    Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture.     (Bos- 
ton, 1910.) 
James,  C.  C.    Practical  Agriculture.     (New  York,  1902.) 
QuAiNTANCE,  H.  W.     The  Influence  of  Farm  Machinery  on  Pro- 
duction and  Labor.     (New  York,  1904.) 
Bruce,  Robert.    Food  Supply.     (London,  1908.) 
Edgar,  W.  C.     The  Story  of  a  Grain  of  Wheat.     (New  York,  1903.) 
Allen,  W.  F.    Agriculture  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
DucLAUX,  Mme.     The  Fields  of  France.     (London,  1904.) 


28  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Dun,  Finlay.    American  Farming  and  Food.     (London,  1881.) 
Streeter,  J.  W.     The  Fat  of  the  Land.     (New  York,  1904.) 
Marlatt,  G.  L.     The  Annual  Losses  Occasioned  by  Destructive  In- 
sects in  the  United  States,  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, p.  46.     (1904.) 
Conn,  H.  W.    Agricultural  Bacteriology.     (Philadelphia,  1901.) 
Newell,  F.  H.    Irrigation  in  the  United  States.     (New  York, 

1902).  The  Reclamation  of  the  West.  (Washington,  1903.) 
Spillman,  W.  J.  Diversified  Farming  in  the' Cotton  Belt,  Yearbook 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  p.  193  (1905) ;  Opportunities 
in  Agriculture,  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  p.  181 
(1904). 
Terry,  T.  B.  Our  Farming,  or  How  We  Made  a  Run-down  Farm 
Bring  Both  Profit  and  Pleasure.     (Philadelphia,  1893.) 


CHAPTER  III 

HUMAN  RESOURCES   OF  THE   COMMUNITY 

Any  region  must  have  some  elements  of  human  society 
before  it  can  properly  be    called  a    community.     The 
diversity  and  complexity  of  these  human  elements  may 
be  almost  infinitely  varied.     It  is  not  proper  perhaps  to 
speak  of  the  Hfe  of  a  hermit,  remote  from  his  fellow  men, 
as  being  a  community  hfe,  though  even  with  him  there 
is  a  certain  inner  social  Uf e  from  which  he  cannot  wholly 
escape.    It  is  perhaps  hardly  proper  to  speak  of  a  greafl 
city,  with  its  complex  and  thronging  interests,  as  a  com-  / 
munity,  for  it  is  not  a  common  Hfe.     But  in  the  average  J 
agricultural  region,  or  in  the  small  town  or  village,  there  j 
is  enough  of  the  himian  element  to  set  up  radiating  lines  I 
of  interest,  and  a  sufficiently  small  degree  of  complexity  j 
to  make  possible  at  least  a  common  Hfe  for  all  the  mem-^ 
bers.     But  there  are  worlds  of  difference  between  vary- 
ing communities,  due  almost  wholly  to  the  varying  types 
and  qualities  of  the  individuals  who  make  up  the  com- 
munities. 

There  are  communities  in  which  the  dominant  type 
of  individual  is  wholly  traditional,  settled  in  his  ways 
and  unprogressive.  Here  the  children  lack  stimulus  to 
preparation  for  life  or  work ;  here  community  develop- 

29 


30  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

ment  lags  or  decays.  There  is  perhaps  nothing  sadder 
in  the  world  than  the  sight  of  a  village  once  prosperous 
and  progressive  that  has  fallen  into  stagnation  and  decay. 
The  inner  experience  of  a  child  who  grows  up  in  such 
a  community  must  be  pathetic,  for  he  has  a  constant  con- 
tact with,  and  his  Hfe  is  molded  by,  the  influences  that 
speak  of  failure  rather  than  of  progress.  For  such  a 
child  there  is  Httle  future  other  than  that  of  discourage- 
ment unless  he  should,  by  some  means,  be  released  both 
socially  and  psychologically  from  these  decadent  in- 
fluences. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  nothing  more  stimulating 
than  the  sight  of  a  community  that  has  been  developing 
naturally  and  healthfully  in  a  consistent  progress.  Here 
industry  calls  forth  the  constructive  energies  of  all  the 
people,  old  and  young.  The  sense  of  workmanship  and 
the  mastering  of  the  materials  of  the  community  give 
to  all  a  certain  air  of  self-respect  that  makes  them  com- 
mand respect.  Here  surplus  energies  will  expand  them- 
selves in  recreative,  social,  and  cultural  ways,  and  the 
whole  life  of  the  community  will  be  enlarged. 

But  what  are  these  human  resources?  First,  every 
community  must  have  its  workers ;  but  as  a  matter  of 
fact  in  some  measure  every  individual  in  the  community 
must  be  a  contributor  to  the  wealth  and  welfare,  material 
or  social,  of  the  community.  Every  individual  will  be 
a  consumer  of  the  goods  of  the  community,  and  the 
social  conscience  of  our  times  is  coming  to  insist  that  he 
who  consumes  the  goods  of  the  community  shall  render 


HUMAN   RESOURCES   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  3 1 

some  essential  social  return  for  the  share  which  the 
community  gives  him  in  its  life.  But  work  should  be  of  a 
sufficiently  varied  kind  within  the  community,  and  the 
workers  should  be  sufficiently  varied  in  their  skills,  so 
that  the  community  will  not  present  itself  as  a  monotone 
of  work  or  of  activity.  Where  variety  of  work  and 
skill  is  impossible,  there  should  be  an  extension  of  the 
bounds  of  the  community  consciousness  to  include  other 
fragmentary  communities;  for  the  conscience  of  the 
community  must  become  complete  enough  to  provide 
the  types  and  varieties  of  activity  that  are  valued  by  all 
and  that  are  necessary  to  a  completely  human  life.  Such 
extension  of  community  consciousness  is,  even  in  very 
sparsely  settled  regions,  very  possible  in  these  days 
by  means  of  telephone  Hnes,  good  roads,  the  use  of  auto- 
mobiles, and  the  extension  of  the  mail  service  to  wide 
territories. 

Social  leaders  should  not  be  content  to  allow  isolated 
fragments  of  a  world  to  decay  and  die  in  their  fragmen- 
tariness.  They  must  be  aroused  and  stimulated  to  en- 
large their  borders,  at  least  in  terms  of  interest  and  work, 
until  within  themselves  they  shall  be  more  inclusive  of 
a  completely  human  world. 

But  work  itself  should  be  understood  to  include  all 
forms  of  constructive  and  productive  activity.  The 
fundamental  industries  of  agriculture,  liunbering,  fishing, 
mining,  the  raising  of  stock,  and  like  activities,  which 
produce  the  first  raw  materials  of  social  wealth  are  to 
be  considered  as  essential  parts  of  the  community's 


32  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

activity,  and  there  must  be  human  energy  enough  to 
develop  gradually  and  bring  to  complete  use  the  resources 
along  any  of  these  lines  of  which  the  community  has 
store.  There  will  be  reflex  influences.  "  We  mold 
ourselves  and  our  materials  at  the  same  time,"  says  an 
old  proverb  quoted  by  Comenius;  and  the  workers 
of  a  community,  increasing  their  material  wealth,  are 
increasing  their  human  wealth  at  the  same  time. 

But  beyond  these  forms  of  work  are  those  secondary 
means  of  production,  —  the  manufacturing,  the  re- 
making of  the  raw  materials  until  they  shall  meet  more 
fully  the  growing  tastes  of  the  community ;  —  and  here 
again  the  aptitude  grows  by  what  it  feeds  upon ;  and  if 
worthy  materials  are  being  made  in  worthy  manner 
into  still  more  worthy  materials  for  the  markets  of  the 
world,  the  skills  and  the  tastes  of  the  community  will 
be  gradually  developing  and  a  finer  life  will  be  the  result. 

Beyond  these  will  rise  the  essentially  social  occupations 
of  the  professional  men  and  women,  occupations  that 
have  come  into  existence  only  with  the  growth  of  com- 
munity Hfe.  The  lawyer  was  unnecessary  in  the  sim- 
pler world ;  the  teacher  as  such  was  unknown ;  the  priest 
was  a  worker  of  wonders  for  the  baffling  of  the  credulous ; 
and  the  physician  has  come  to  be  of  immense  social 
importance  in  our  modern  world  because  so  many  of 
our  diseases  are  really  social  in  their  origin  and  nature. 

Perhaps  the  great  task  of  the  world  is  the  conserva- 
tion of  our  human  resources.  We  have  grown  so  accus- 
tomed to  academic  ways  of  looking  at  things  that  it 


HUMAN  RESOURCES    OF   THE   COMMUNITY  33 

seems  difficult  to  face  the  essential  facts  of  human  life. 
We  would  conserve  our  community  intelligence  by  cram- 
ming it  into  the  heads  of  our  boys  and  girls  in  the 
schools ;  we  would  conserve  our  community  moral  Hfe 
by  reducing  it  to  maxims  and  precepts  and  feeding  our 
boys  and  girls  upon  these  dry  remnants  of  morality ;  we 
would  conserve  the  political  Hfe  of  our  communities  by 
intrusting  that  life  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  most 
efficient  manipulator  of  money  and  men.  Meanwhile 
the  commimity  is  burying  its  dead,  one  by  one ;  and 
rejoicing  again  and  again  in  the  birth  of  new  members ; 
and  although  the  community  does  not  always  recognize 
the  fact,  the  real  promise  of  the  future  is  not  in  the  com- 
munity's old  and  set  forms,  and  in  its  methods  of  con- 
servation, but  in  the  ever  renewing  life  that  comes  in  the 
birth  of  the  little  child.  Nothing  more  completely  ex- 
presses the  right  principle  of  community  conservation 
of  its  human  resources  than  the  great  child-welfare 
movement  of  the  present. 

It  startles  us  to  meet  the  proposition  that  a  child  is 
more  socially  important  than  an  adult;  but  the  old 
Greek  king  understood  the  fact  when  he  said  that  he 
would  willingly  send  a  hundred  men  to  be  sacrificed 
rather  than  one  child ;  for  men  have  proved  their  value 
and  have  given  the  testimony  of  the  worth  of  their  con- 
tribution; but  in  the  child  there  may  be  latent  the 
energy  that  will  open  a  new  era  in  the  world's  history. 
He  who  sacrifices  a  man  knows  what  he  is  doing ;  but 
he  who  sacrifices  a  child  knows  not  what  social  wealth 


34  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

he  may  be  wasting,  what  social  poverty  he  may  be  bring- 
ing upon  the  world.  In  every  community  of  normal  size 
there  are  boys  and  girls,  young  men  and  young  women, 
not  yet  able  completely  to  express  themselves,  still  facing 
in  some  measure  the  larger  revelation  of  the  future.  We 
shall  make  our  communities  richer  in  resource,  and  finer 
centers  of  life,  just  in  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  conserve 
these  unknown  human  resources,  these  makers  of  the 
social  world  that  is  to  be  in  the  next  generation,  these 
energies  that  are  eager  to  seize  the  tools  of  life  and  take 
their  places  in  the  constructive  work  of  the  world. 

An  essential  element  in  the  progress  of  any  community 
is  the  native  energy,  the  moral  daring,  that  sometimes 
goes  astray,  in  its  young  men  and  women.  When  the 
world  has  lost  its  savor  and  the  life  of  the  community 
seems  to  languish  toward  decay,  the  honor  that  is  in 
some  young  man  or  woman,  the  strength  that  surges  up 
out  of  some  ancestral  deep,  the  faith  that  can  dare, 
even  with  the  possibility  of  failure,  these  are  the  things 
that  may  even  yet  assure  a  future  to  that  community. 
The  inventive  genius  of  the  boy  as  he  seeks  to  imitate  or 
surpass  the  man  he  reads  about,  the  spirit  of  inquiry, 
the  power  of  sacrifice,  the  strength  that  can  meet  the 
uncertainties  of  the  life  of  any  community,  these  things 
everywhere  present  in  some  degree,  are  a  part,  —  an 
essential  part,  —  of  the  future  possibilities  of  any  com- 
munity. 

It  is  not  likely  that  any  community  fully  realizes  its 
own  resources.     There  is  more  intelligence  in  its  members 


HUMAN   RESOURCES   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  35 

than  they  give  each  other  credit  for;  there  is  more 
willingness  to  help  each  other;  there  is  less  of  actual 
suspicion  of  each  other  than  appears  on  the  surface. 
He  who  would  go  into  a  community  to  serve  that  com- 
munity as  teacher,  minister,  or  physician  in  any  sense, 
must  not  forget  that  his  first  duty  is  to  investigate  and 
understand  the  resources  that  are  there  before  him.  It  is 
his  duty,  —  not  to  destroy  those  resources  and  attempt 
to  develop  others ;  it  is  his  business  to  understand  and 
to  cultivate  the  resources  that  are  there. 

J.  K.  H. 


SURVEY  OF  THE  HUMAN  RESOURCES  OF  THE  COM- 
MUNITY 

1.  What  is  the  popuation  of  the  community?  How  is  this 
population  distributed  as  to  children  and  adults  ?  Are  the  ele- 
ments which  make  up  this  population  evenly  balanced?  Are 
there  any  large  numbers  of  unattached  men  or  women  in  the 
community  ?  Are  there  any  unprotected  or  improperly  directed 
children  in  the  community?  Are  there  any  essentially  vicious 
forces  in  the  community  ? 

2.  Is  there  a  conservation  of  strength  and  energy  in  the  condi- 
tion of  labor  in  the  community  ?  Is  there  a  proper  development 
of  the  occupational  possibilities  of  the  community  ?  Is  there  any 
waste  of  child  hfe  or  adult  life  through  antiquated  or  anti-social 
forms  of  industry?  Is  there  any  tendency  in  the  community  to 
disregard  the  values  of  home  life  or  social  Ufe  for  the  children  ? 

3.  Are  there  any  essentially  strong  leaders  of  the  community 
hfe?  Are  any  efforts  made  to  discover  and  develop  the  latent 
talents  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  community?  Are  these  efforts 
ever  overdone  ?    Has  the  community  sent  any  men  or  women  out 


36  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

into  the  world  to  win  a  place  in  the  world's  work?  Has  the 
community  any  memories  or  traditions  of  an  heroic  past  that 
may  help  to  develop  such  attitudes  in  the  children?  Is  the 
community  inteUigent  in  its  efforts  to  conserve  and  develop  its 
child  life  ?  Has  the  community  any  vital  ideals  of  future  develop- 
ment and  of  future  greatness?  To  what  extent  may  it  be  said 
that  the  community  is  depending  upon  its  own  resources  of 
strength  and  energy,  and  to  what  extent  is  it  depending  upon 
external  help  for  its  development  ?  Are  there  any  latent  hmnan 
resources  in  the  way  of  intelligence,  skill,  or  taste  that  are  not 
properly  appreciated  or  properly  developed  within  the  community  ? 
Are  the  teachers  in  the  public  schools  interested  in  the  com- 
munity's human  resources,  or  merely  in  the  books  ?  Are  the  minis- 
ters in  the  churches  interested  in  these  community  resources  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Anderson.     The  Country  Town. 

BuTTERFiELD.     Chapters  in  Rural  Progress. 

Carnegie.     Triumphant  Democracy.     (Later  edition.) 

Commons.    Races  and  Immigrants  in  America. 
\jGiDDiNGS.    Inductive  Sociology. 

Hasbach.     History  of  English  Agricultural  Labor. 

Martin.    History  of  the  Grange  Movement. 
TMeline.    The  Return  to  the  Land. 
IEmerick,  C.  F.    Agricultural  Discontent,  Political  Science  Quarterly ^ 

Vol.  IX,  p.  436. 
[Fairchild,  George  T.    Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare.    (New  York, 
1900.) 

Haggard,  H.  Rider.    A  Farmer's  Year.     (London,  1899.) 

Kelsey,  Carl.     The  Negro  Farmer. 

Harwood,  W.  S.     The  New  Earth.     (New  York,  1906.) 

Chilcot,  E.   C.    Dry  Land  Farming  in  the  Great  Plains  Area, 
Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  p.  451.      (1907.) 


HUMAN  RESOURCES   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  37 

Collins,  T.  B.    The  New  Agriculture.     (New  York,  1906.) 
Hall,  Bolton.    A  Little  Land  and  a  Living.    (New  York,  1908.) 

Three  Acres  and  Liberty.     (New  York,  1907.) 
Maxwell,  G.  H.     The  Homecrofters. 
(Moore,  H.  E.    Back  to  the  Land.     (London,  1893.) 


CHAPTER  IV 
ECONOMIC  ACTIVITIES  OF  THE  COMMUNITY 

Introductory.  —  We  have  now  reviewed  briefly  some 
of  the  important  problems  which  must  be  considered 
on  account  of  the  variations  in  the  physical  resources 
of  the  community.  We  have  also  briefly  surveyed  the 
problems  confronting  us  in  connection  with  the  himian 
resources  of  the, community.  It  is  natural  that  the  next 
subject  to  be  investigated  should  be  the  economic  ac- 
tivities of  the  community.  It  has  often  been  said  and 
well  said  that  the  majority  of  man's  time  is  devoted  to 
making  a  living.  The  economic  activities  surely  call  for 
most  of  the  time  of  the  people  of  any  community.  In 
order  to  best  consider  the  problems  involved  in  a  typical 
rural  community,  I  have  chosen  to  keep  in  mind  a  repre- 
sentative section  which  is  not  peculiar  in  any  way,  but 
which  I  believe  to  be  typical  for  plirposes  of  study. 

I  have  in  mind  a  considerable  community  in  north- 
west Georgia.  I  am  not  better  acquainted  with  condi- 
tions in  that  community  than  with  similar  communities 
in  any  other  part  of  the  United  States.  My  observations 
here  are  based  upon  information  gleaned  from  studying 
rural  conditions  from  a  distance,  —  not  from  first-hand 
study.     I   should  make  it  clear   that  I  have  passed 

38 


ECONOMIC   ACTIVITIES   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  39 

through  this  community  several  times  and  have  stopped 
in  it,  but  I  have  done  the  same  with  thousands  of  other 
communities  in  much  the  same  way.  I,  therefore,  am 
acquainted  with  the  general  characteristics  of  the  dis- 
trict and  the  general  rural  status. 

Land  in  Farms.  —  The  community  under  considera- 
tion, for  purposes  of  this  discussion,  will  be  presumed 
to  extend  over  an  entire  county.  The  area  of  this  county 
is  almost  exactly  320,000  acres.  The  most  casual  reader 
should  at  once  see  that  this  is  500  sections  of  land.  If 
this  community  were  in  the  central  west  and  were  divided 
into  the  usual  quarter-section  farms,  the  reader  would 
conclude  at  once  that  the  community  is  settled  by  ap- 
proximately 2000  farmers,  each  operating  the  usual 
quarter  section.     This,  however,  is  not  the  situation. 

Size  of  Farms. — It  is  of  foremost  importance  that  we 
should  inquire  at  this  point  concerning  the  size  of  these 
farms.  I  suggested  that  if  this  were  a  typical  community 
in  the  north  central  states  we  might  expect  to  find  these 
farms,  generally  speaking,  160  acres  in  size.  A  few 
would  be  80  or  1 20  acres  in  size,  and  a  few  would  be  200 
or  240  acres  in  size,  but  the  typical  farm  would  be  the 
160-acre  place.  How  different  is  this  rural  community 
in  the  South  !  We  find  one  suburban  place  under  three 
acres  reported  as  a  farm  and  supporting  a  farm  family. 
Then  there  are  seventy-seven  places  between  three  and 
ten  acres  in  size.  These  again  are  small  suburban  places, 
largely  devoted  to  the  production  of  vegetables,  poultry, 
dairying,  etc.,  but  they  support  farm  families.    After 


40  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

these  we  find  266  farms  to  be  between  ten  and  twenty 
acres  in  size.     These  are  real  farms  in  the  modern  sense 
of  the  word.     Evidently  they  are  small  farms.     In  many 
parts  of  the  country  they  would  be  looked  upon  as  being 
extremely  small  farms.     The  question  would  be  raised 
whether  or  not  they  could  support  farm  families.    Clearly 
under  the  usual  system  of  farming  the  farmers  could 
not  make  any  large  amount  of  money  and  would  have 
to  live  in  comparatively  small  homes  and  live  compara- 
tively simple  lives.     There  are    iiii   farms    between 
twenty  and  fifty  acres  in  size.     This  is  the  largest  single 
class  and  represents  a  very  important  group.     Following 
this  class  in  importance,  we  find  825  farms  ranging  from 
fifty  to  100  acres  in  size.     This  would  seem  to  be  more 
nearly  the  size  of  farm  which  might  well  be  advocated 
for  general  agricultural  purposes,  and  yet  it  is  clear  that 
there  are  more  of  the  forty-acre  farms  than  of  the  eighty- 
acre  farms.     We  may  now  turn   our  attention  to  the 
larger  places.     There  are  530  farms  which  range  from 
100  to  175  acres.     This  probably  represents  the  class 
of  quarter-section  farms  common  in  other  parts  of  the 
country.     Then  there  are  151  farms  ranging  from  175 
to  260  acres;  and  99  farms  ranging  between  260  and 
500  acres.     It  will  be  noted  at  once  that  the  number  of 
farms  between  260  and  500  acres  is  only  sKghtly  larger 
than  the  number  between  three  and  ten  acres.     There 
are  a  few  real  large  places  in  the  county.     The  number 
between  500  and  1000  acres  is  29,  and  those  exceeding 
1000  acres  number  three. 


ECONOMIC   ACTIVITIES    OF   THE   COMMUNITY  4 1 

How  different  is  the  situation  in  the  rural  community 
imder  consideration  from  the  rural  community  of  the 
same  size  in  the  prairie  region  of  the  northwest.  Here 
we  have  farms  ranging  from  three  to  looo  acres  and  over, 
—  small  farmers  living  in  the  most  humble  way  to  pros- 
perous farmers  maintaining  large  establishments.  It  is 
proper  to  note  here  that  the  average  size  of  farm  for  the 
entire  community  is  about  eighty-two  acres,  and  it  must 
be  clear  to  any  reasoning  person  that  this  does  not  mean 
that  the  farmers  have  anything  Hke  the  same  amount 
of  property,  or  that  the  eighty-acre  farm  predominates. 

It  might  be  noted  also  that  the  average  number  of  acres 
of  improved  land  per  farm  is  almost  exactly  forty,  but 
this  does  not  mean  that  each  farm  family  operates  forty 
acres.  The  fact  is,  great  numbers  of  farm  famihes 
operate  only  five,  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  acres  of  im- 
proved land,  while  many  other  farmers  operate  much 
larger  tracts  with  the  assistance  of  their  families  and 
hired  labor. 

Growth.  —  The  number  of  farmers  in  this  community 
is  increasing  at  the  present  time,  and  the  question  natu- 
rally would  arise,  "  Does  this  mean  that  farms  are 
growing  smaller,"  or  "Is  there  a  considerable  amount  of 
unoccupied  land  which  is  now  being  taken  up  ?  "  Suffice 
it  to  say  that  even  at  the  present  time,  sHghtly  less  than 
eighty  acres  out  of  every  loo  acres  of  land  in  the  county 
are  in  farms.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  district 
is  new  or  unsettled,  and  it  certainly  does  not  mean  that 
there  is  government  land  available  for  settlement.      It 


42  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

means  only  that  there  is  considerable  rough  land  not 
available  for  agriculture.  It  means  that  there  are  a 
number  of  railroad  right-of-ways  which  take  considerable 
land.  It  means  that  one  city  of  some  14,000  inhabitants 
occupies  a  considerable  tract  of  land,  and  it  means 
further  that  roads  occupy  some  space.  Aside  from  these 
and  sites  for  country  schools,  churches,  etc.,  the  land 
reported  as  not  in  farms  is  owned  by  absentees,  is  not  in 
use,  and  is  not  reported  as  farm  land.  This  is  probably 
largely  timbered  and  not  readily  available  at  the  present 
time  for  farming  purposes.  There  is  room  for  some 
expansion  and  some  increase  in  the  amount  of  land 
actually  in  farms  and  the  increase  is  actually  going  on. 
In  1900  there  were  246,508  acres  in  farms,  whereas  in 
1 9 10  the  land  in  farms  had  increased  to  252,146  acres,  — 
an  increase  of  nearly  6000  acres. 

Land  Improved. — But  all  land  in  farms  is  not  im- 
proved. That  is  to  say,  all  of  the  farm  land  is  not  actu- 
ally cultivated  or  preserved  in  good  form  for  pastures 
in  rotation.  Indeed,  a  very  large  part  of  the  land  in 
farms  is  woodland,  or  if  cleared,  is  not  improved  or  used 
at  the  present  time  for  cultivation.  I  noted  above  that 
whereas  the  average  farm  was  about  82  acres  in  size, 
the  average  acreage  of  improved  land  per  farm  amounted 
to  only  forty  acres.  It  should  not  surprise  the  reader, 
therefore,  when  I  state  that  of  the  land  in  farms,  only 
48  per  cent  is  improved.  In  other  words,  sHghtly  less 
than  one  half  of  the  land  actually  in  farms  is  improved 
and  available  for  cultivation.    It  might  be  worth  while 


ECONOMIC  ACTIVITIES    OF   THE   COMMUNITY  43 

to  note,  however,  that  the  acreage  of  improved  land  is 
increasing.  This  is  an  evidence  of  thrift  and  work 
on  the  part  of  the  agricultural  class.  Farmers  are  clearly 
not  content  with  producing  crops  year  after  year  on  the 
same  land  and  are  increasing  the  acreage  of  land  avail- 
able for  cultivation.  This  is  a  sign  of  progress.  The 
1900  reports  show  that  there  were  110,420  acres  of  im- 
proved land  in  the  community  under  consideration, 
whereas  the  report  for  1910  shows  121,382  acres.  This 
is  an  increase  of  considerably  more  than  10,000  acres  in 
ten  years.  But  even  this  is  comparatively  slow  progress 
when  we  consider  the  fact  that  in  this  county  there  are 
1 2 1,792  acres  of  woodland  in  farms.  Much  of  this  clearly 
could  be  improved  if  proper  steps  were  taken.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  there  are  in  farms  almost  9000  acres  of  land 
not  grown  up  with  timber  but  not  improved.  This 
may  be  stump  land,  or  stony  land,  or  swamp  land,  or 
in  some  other  way  not  available  at  the  present  time  for 
agriculture.  None  the  less,  this  must  gradually  be 
brought  into  use. 

Farm  Labor. — I  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  there 
are  in  the  county  a  considerable  number  of  places  ex- 
ceeding 100  acres  in  size  The  actual  number  is  812. 
It  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  the  farmers  who  operate 
these  places  are  unable  to  do  all  of  the  work  required. 
It  is  also  reasonable  to  believe  that  a  considerable  number 
of  farmers  who  have  places  from  50  to  100  acres  would 
require  some  hired  assistance  during  the  working  year. 
Each  farmer  in  the  community  was  asked  whether  or 


44  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

not  he  employed  any  laborers  during  the  preceding  year, 
and  948  reported  that  they  had  the  assistance  of  outside 
labor  at  some  time  during  the  year.  This  is  almost  one 
half  of  the  farmers  in  the  county.  All  of  these,  how- 
ever, did  not  employ  regular  laborers  to  serve  through- 
out the  year.  This  is  clear  from  the  statement  that 
the  total  amount  expended  for  labor  during  one  year 
amounted  to  $99,304.  This  is  an  expenditure  of  slightly 
more  than  $100  per  farmer  for  those  who  hired  labor,  and 
clearly  would  not  pay  for  a  laborer  more  than  half  a 
year  on  the  average.  Large  numbers  of  these  farmers 
hired  laborers  only  for  a  very  few  days,  while  others 
hired  laborers  for  the  entire  year.  In  addition  to  the 
amount  paid  out  in  cash,  these  same  farmers  reported  an 
expenditure  of  approximately  $11,000  for  rent  and  board 
furnished  to  laborers. 

Value  of  Farm  Property.  —  The  average  citizen,  be  he 
a  student  or  other  interested  party,  does  not  realize 
how  much  is  invested  in  farm  property  in  such  a  commu- 
nity as  I  have  under  consideration.  The  farmers  in  the 
county  referred  to  were  asked  concerning  the  value  of 
farm  property  under  their  charge,  and  the  total  value 
for  the  county  is  shown  to  be  almost  $6,000,000.  The 
farmers  in  this  same  district  were  asked  in  1900  concern- 
ing the  value  of  their  property,  and  reported  at  that  time 
that  it  amounted  to  slightly  more  than  $3,500,000. 
The  increase  in  the  value  of  farm  property,  therefore, 
during  the  ten  years  exceeded  68  per  cent,  and  amounted 
to  almost  $2,500,000.    Some  students  will  say  at  once 


ECONOMIC  ACTIVITIES  OF  THE   COMMUNITY  45 

that  this  is  unearned  increment,  and  that  the  property 
is  the  same  as  ten  years  ago,  but  I  beheve  it  is  worth 
while  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  an  increase  of 
10,000  acres  in  improved  land  necessarily  called  for  a 
large  amount  of  labor,  and  the  property  improved  now 
is  much  more  valuable.  It  is  also  true  that  the  land 
which  formerly  was  improved  is  doubtless  much  better 
improved  than  it  was.  There  are  fences,  ditches,  and 
drains;  there  are  more  and  better  buildings;  there  are 
more  and  better  animals  on  the  farms ;  there  are  more 
and  better  implements  and  machinery.  All  of  these 
have  added  to  the  farm  worth,  and  an  increase  amount- 
ing to  a  quarter  of  a  million  a  year  during  the  last  ten 
years  is  an  item  which  cannot  be  passed  over  lightly. 

Of  the  total  value  of  farm  property,  $3,472,000  repre- 
sents the  land  alone.  This  is  almost  60  per  cent  of  the 
total  value.  The  next  item  in  importance  is  the  value 
of  the  buildings,  amounting  to  $1,264,000,  or  almost 
22  per  cent  of  the  total  value.  The  buildings  on  the 
farms  in  this  community  have  doubled  in  value  in  the 
last  ten  years.  Live  stock  on  farms  is  valued  at  almost 
$900,000,  whereas  ten  years  ago  the  total  value  of  live 
stock  on  farms  was  less  than  $500,000.  Live  stock  rep- 
resented 15  per  cent  of  the  value  of  farm  property.  Im- 
plements and  machinery  have  doubled  in  value  during 
the  decade,  and  although  only  5  per  cent  of  the  value  of 
all  farm  property  they  are  reported  to  be  worth  over 
$271,000. 

The  figures  given  above  are  very  large,'^and  many 


46  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

readers  do  not  like  large  terms.  It  is  worth  while  to 
note,  therefore,  that  the  average  value  of  land  per  acre 
is  $13.77  according  to  the  answers  given  by  the  3000 
farmers  interviewed.  The  average  value  reported  ten 
years  ago  was  $9.09  per  acre,  showing  a  very  material 
increase  during  the  last  decade.  The  actual  increase 
when  figured  in  dollars  and  cents  amounts  to  almost 
fifty  cents  an  acre  during  each  year.  This  should  be 
kept  in  mind  by  present  owners,  and  also  should  be  kept 
in  mind  by  present  tenants  who  hope  to  become  owners. 
The  value  of  the  average  farm  with  all  of  its  equipment 
is  slightly  less  than  $2000.  Of  course  this  must  necessa- 
rily vary  according  to  the  size  of  the  farm  and  the  extent 
to  which  the  farm  is  improved.  The  average  value  of 
buildings  per  farm  for  the  entire  county  sHghtly  exceeds 
$400.  This  includes  the  houses  and  other  buildings, 
and  seems  very  low,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  a 
very  large  number  of  small  and  very  poor  sets  of  buildings 
are  included,  offsetting  the  higher  average  value  of 
buildings  reported  for  many  farms.  The  average  value 
of  implements  and  machinery  per  farm  for  the  entire 
community  is  only  $90.  This  again  is  extremely  small, 
but  shows  that  a  very  large  amount  of  the  labor  must  be 
performed  by  the  farmers  themselves  rather  than  by 
machines  guided  by  laborers. 

Live  Stock  on  Farms.  —  The  live  stock  industry  has 
attained  considerable  importance  among  the  farmers 
of  the  community  under  consideration.  This  is  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  all  but  89  of  the  farmers  reported 


ECONOMIC   ACTIVITIES   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  47 

domestic  animals  of  some  kind.  Those  who  did  not 
report  any  domestic  animals  were  small  suburban  vege- 
table growers  and  poultry  raisers.  There  were  also  a 
few  tenants  who  did  not  have  any  animals  on  their  farms, 
but  who  were  suppHed  animals  by  the  owners  of  the  land. 
The  total  value  of  these  domestic  animals  was  $868,000 
in  round  numbers.  This  is  a  very  important  item  in 
agriculture,  and  is  of  increasing  importance.  The 
average  value  of  Kve  stock  per  farm  for  the  entire  com- 
munity is  almost  $300.  This  is  very  materially  above 
the  average  for  ten  years  ago,  when  it  amounted  to 
about  $150.  The  growth  of  the  live  stock  industry  only 
means  much  for  the  community.  The  most  important 
class  of  domestic  animals  reported  is  mules.  The  nimi- 
ber  reported  was  3673.  This  is  an  average  of  somewhat 
more  than  one  mule  per  farm  for  all  farmers  in  the  dis- 
trict. Of  course  all  farmers  did  not  have  mules,  and 
several  had  two  mules  or  more.  The  most  striking 
feature  of  the  report  pertaining  to  mules  is  the  fact  that 
only  23  yearling  mules  were  reported.  It  is  perfectly 
clear  from  this  that  the  farmers  of  Georgia,  especially 
the  farmers  of  the  community  under  consideration, 
do  not  raise  their  own  mules.  If  I  were  called  upon 
to  point  out  the  greatest  errors  committed  by  the 
farmers  of  this  community  I  would  point  out  this  as  one 
of  them.  Only  fifteen  spring  mule  colts  were  reported. 
It  is  a  striking  fact  that  the  average  value  of  the  mature 
mules  for  the  state  of  Georgia  is  almost  exactly  $150. 
The  average  value  of  the  yearling  mule  colt  is  almost 


48  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

$75,  and  the  average  value  of  the  spring  colt  is  $40. 
Here  is  the  point  which  I  desire  to  emphasize!  There 
are  sixty-four  farmers  out  of  every  100  who  report 
mules  on  their  farms,  and  yet  only  one  farmer  out  of 
every  1000  who  reports  spring  mule  colts.  Less  than 
one  out  of  every  150  farmers  had  on  their  places  any 
colts.  These  animals  are  produced  in  other  parts  of  the 
country  when  they  could  be  raised  to  very  great  advan- 
tage on  the  farms  which  need  them.  It  is  extremely  un- 
fortunate that  these  farmers  do  not  attempt  to  raise 
their  own  work  animals. 

There  are  almost  one  half  as  many  horses  in  the  com- 
munity as  there  are  mules,  and  about  one  half  as  many 
farmers  report  horses  as  report  mules.  The  average 
value  of  the  horse  is  sKghtly  lower  than  that  of  the  mule. 
Here  again  the  same  striking  situation  exists.  Only 
fifty-five  yearling  horse  colts  were  reported  from  the 
entire  county.  Here  is  evidence  enough  that  the  farmers 
purchase  not  only  mules  but  horses  to  carry  on  their 
work.     This  is  an  exorbitant  drain  on  the  community. 

There  were  reported  in  the  county  about  9000  cattle. 
This  is  an  average  of  approximately  three  cattle  for  each 
farmer  in  the  community.  When  we  take  into  consid- 
eration the  fact  that  half  of  the  land  in  farms  is  wood- 
land or  otherwise  unimproved,  and  think  of  the  amount 
of  wild  pasturage  available,  it  is  strange  that  there  are  not 
more  cattle  of  all  kinds.  One  half  of  the  cattle  are  dairy 
cows,  the  others  being  distributed  among  the  various 
classes  of  steers,  bulls,  calves,  and  heifers.     It  is  inter- 


ECONOMIC   ACTIVITIES   OF    THE   COMMUNITY  49 

esting  to  note  that  the  average  value  of  the  dairy  cows  is 
slightly  more  than  $20.  All  other  classes  of  animals  fall 
materially  below  this.  Three  out  of  every  four  farmers 
in  Georgia  have  swine  on  their  farms.  In  the  community 
under  consideration,  7000  swine  were  reported  at  the  time 
of  the  last  census.  This  leaves  a  very  low  average 
number  of  swine  for  each  farmer,  the  average  being  three 
or  four.  It  would  seem  that  great  opportunities  present 
themselves  at  the  present  time  looking  toward  the 
development  of  the  swine  industry.  Climatic  conditions 
are  favorable.  The  production  of  com  is  practicable 
and  more  or  less  common,  and  the  prices  paid  for  pork 
are  very  high.  Indeed,  at  the  present  time,  the  produc- 
tion of  meat  is  an  important  industry  which  should  not 
be  overlooked,  and  this  particular  branch  is  especially 
profitable  at  the  present  time. 

The  total  number  of  sheep  owned  by  these  3cx)o  farmers 
is  only  about  1000.  Clearly  the  farmers  are  not  at  the 
present  time  largely  engaged  in  the  sheep  industry. 
It  may  be  noted  that  only  about  two  farmers  of  every 
100  had  sheep.  It  would  seem  that  with  the  present 
high  price  of  wool  and  the  high  price  of  mutton  and  lamb, 
and  the  general  demand  for  other  products  of  the  sheep 
industry,  that  farmers  would  undertake  the  production 
of  sheep  more  generally  if  land  were  available  for  that 
purpose.  In  the  community  of  which  I  write,  there 
are  large  tracts  of  land  used  little  or  not  at  all  at  the 
present  time.  These  lands  might  well  be  utilized  to 
advantage  in  the  extension  of  the  sheep  and  goat  indus- 


50  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

try.  This  may  call  for  more  vigilance  in  seeking  out 
wild  animals  which  prey  upon  the  lambs  and  kids.  It 
would  require  discrimination  in  the  ownership  of  dogs ; 
it  would  require  more  and  better  fences;  and  it  seems 
reasonable  to  believe  that  the  demands  at  the  present 
time  are  such  as  to  warrant  these  changes. 

Turning  our  attention  now  towards  one  of  the  minor 
branches  of  the  Hve  stock  industry,  but  none  the  less  a 
branch  which  the  farmers  cannot  afford  to  overlook,  I 
desire  to  call  attention  to  the  status  of  poultry  produc- 
tion at  the  present  time.  I  find  that  84  farmers  out  of 
every  100,  covering  the  entire  state  of  Georgia,  have 
chickens.  In  the  particular  community  under  con- 
sideration, about  the  same  proportion  exists.  About 
eight  farmers  out  of  every  100  have  turkeys;  six  have 
geese ;  seven  have  guinea-fowls ;  and  three  have  ducks. 
Only  a  very,  very  few  have  pigeons  and  pea-fowls. 
These  3000  farmers  have  on  their  farms  almost  70,000 
fowls  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  This  is  the  basis  of  their 
activities  during  the  coming  summer.  The  total  value 
of  these  fowls  is  nearly  $30,000  or  $10  a  farm.  Of  course 
many  farmers  have  considerably  more  than  $10  worth 
of  fowls,  and  many  have  much  less  than  this.  During 
an  average  year,  four  out  of  every  five  farmers  raise  a 
considerable  number  of  chickens.  The  total  production 
of  fowls  on  the  farms  in  this  community  during  a  typical 
year  is  approximately  175,000.  This  is  nearly  sixty 
fowls  per  farm.  The  total  value  of  the  fowls  produced 
amounts  to  more  than  $50,000,  or  between  $15  and  $20 


ECONOMIC   ACTIVITIES    OF   THE   COMMUNITY  5 1 

per  farm.  It  is  my  thorough  belief  that  in  this  commu- 
nity, farmers  should  raise  three  or  four  times  as  many 
fowls,  and  should  have  an  income  from  this  industry 
alone  many  times  what  they  have  now. 

Only  1052  farmers  sold  fowls  of  any  kind  during  the 
year  1909.  Thus,  only  one  farmer  out  of  three  had  a 
yearly  revenue  from  the  sale  of  chickens.  These  thou- 
sand farmers  sold  an  average  of  forty  chickens  each, 
and  derived  a  revenue  of  a  little  more  than  $11.50  from 
this  source.  If  they  had  sold  four  times  this  many  and 
had  an  average  revenue  of  $50  per  farm,  they  would 
have  reached  a  more  reasonable  stage  of  development. 

Turning  attention  now  to  the  production  and  sale  of 
eggs  by  the  farmers  in  this  community,  250,000  dozens 
of  eggs  were  produced  during  one  year.  These  were 
valued  at  about  $50,000.  With  the  increase  in  the 
production  of  fowls,  there  would  be  an  increase  in  the 
production  of  eggs,  and  in  a  community  of  this  sort  there 
should  be  a  production  of  at  least  a  million  dozens, 
with  a  value  of  $200,000.  A  larger  number  of  farmers 
sold  eggs  than  sold  chickens.  The  number  who  re- 
ported the  sale  of  eggs  during  one  year  was  1280,  and 
they  reported  the  sale  of  90,000  dozens  of  eggs  with  an 
income  from  this  source  of  $18,000.  From  this  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  average  dozen  of  eggs  was  sold  for 
twenty  cents.  From  the  above  statement  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  3000  farmers  in  the  community  produced  poultry 
and  eggs  valued  at  more  than  $100,000,  and  sold  a  little 
more  than  one  fourth  of  what  they  produced.    From 


$2  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  production  of  poultry  and  eggs 
was  largely  for  home  consumption,  and  only  about  one 
third  of  the  farmers  sold  any  of  these  productions. 
Those  who  did  sell  had  an  income  from  poultry  and  eggs 
very  close  to  $30  each.  If  these  farmers  would  organize 
a  selling  society  and  would  double  their  production  they 
could  afford  to  employ  a  selling  agent  throughout  the 
year.  At  the  present  time,  their  sales  amount  to  $30,000 
for  poultry  and  eggs.  If  this  were  doubled  and  they  sold 
$60,000  worth  they  could  pay  a  very  good  salary  to  a 
satisfactory  agent.  One  per  cent  of  $60,000  is  $600, 
or  $50  a  month.  Dealers  at  the  present  time  expect 
to  make  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  and  many  do  not  stop 
short  of  15  or  20  per  cent. 

Farm  Crops.  —  In  the  state  of  Georgia,  nine  farmers 
out  of  every  ten  produce  some  corn.  These  farmers  have 
an  average  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  acres  per  farm. 
This  is  evidence  of  the  fact  that  corn  can  be  grown  and 
indeed  corn  is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  that 
state.  In  the  community  of  which  I  write,  com  is  grown 
successfully.  The  total  acreage  in  an  average  year 
exceeds  27,000.  The  farmers  have  an  average  of  ten 
acres  of  corn  each,  but  the  production  is  not  high,  — 
the  average  being  probably  from  twelve  to  fifteen  bushels 
per  acre.  There  is  evidence,  however,  that  corn  produc- 
tion is  possible  and  is  grown  quite  generally  throughout 
the  district.  There  is  evidence  also  that  the  soils  are 
badly  worn  and  need  careful  attention.  Of  the  3092 
farmers  in  the  commimity,  I  find  that  2367  purchase 


ECONOMIC  ACTIVITIES   OF  THE  COMMUNITY  ^3 

commercial  fertilizers.  They  spend  on  an  average  of 
almost  $100,000  a  year,  or  $30  each.  There  is  something 
wrong  with  this  system  of  agriculture.  If  the  farmers 
must  purchase  fertilizers,  they  should  all  join  hands  and 
form  a  purchasing  society.  They  should  purchase  by 
the  carload  lot,  and  should  save  as  much  as  possible  in 
this  way.  They  should  get  the  best  expert  advice  as 
to  the  value  of  the  fertilizer  which  they  are  purchasing. 
They  should  know  that  much  of  the  fertihzer  which  they 
are  purchasing  is  practically  useless.  But  these  farmers 
should  not  spend  $100,000  a  year  for  commercial  fer- 
tilizer. With  Hve-stock  products  so  high,  they  should 
go  into  raising  of  animals  of  all  sorts.  This  would  re- 
sult in  the  demand  for  more  pasture.  This  calls  for  more 
hay  and  forage.  This  in  turn  calls  for  the  production  of 
more  natural  fertilizer  which  in  turn  enriches  the  soil. 
The  income  would  be  greater  because  of  the  possibilities 
of  the  Uve-stock  industry  at  the  present  time.  Lands 
would  be  enriched  and  larger  crops  would  be  grown ;  other 
products  would  result,  and  at  the  same  time  the  farmers 
would  save  this  $100,000  which  now  goes  for  fertilizers. 
Purchase  of  Feed.  —  At  the  present  time,  the  farmers 
in  the  community  under  consideration  do  not  produce 
enough  feed  for  the  Hve  stock  which  they  have,  and 
therefore  attention  must  necessarily  be  directed  towards 
this  subject.  About  one  farmer  out  of  every  four  pur- 
chases feed,  and  the  amount  expended  for  feed  during 
one  year  is  about  $50,000.  Of  course  steps  should  be 
taken  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  remedy  this. 


54  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Selling  of  Feed.  —  It  should  be  noted,  however,  in 
contrast  to  the  above  statements  that  a  considerable 
number  of  farmers  sell  feed.  The  total  receipts  from  sale 
of  feed  during  the  same  year,  however,  was  only  about 
one  half  the  amount  paid  out  for  feed.  I  find  that  185 
out  of  3092  farmers  sold  corn.  They  disposed  of  14,377 
bushels  and  received  for  it  $13,521.  This  is  almost  a 
dollar  a  bushel  and  must  be  a  very  profitable  crop  at 
this  price.  Only  fifty- two  farmers  sold  oats.  These 
sold  8316  bushels  and  received  $7466.  This  is  nearly 
90  cents  a  bushel,  and  is  again  a  very  good  price.  Hay 
and  coarse  forage  of  some  kind  was  sold  by  forty-four 
farmers.  They  sold  339  tons  and  received  $6040.  This 
is  a  very  high  price,  considering  the  possibilities  of 
production.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  a  very  small 
number  of  farmers  produced  more  feed  than  they  used, 
while  a  very  large  number  used  more  feed  than  they  pro- 
duced, and  if  the  farmers  raised  as  many  domestic 
animals  of  the  different  classes  as  they  should  the  produc- 
tion of  feed  would  have  to  be  increased  very  materially. 

Turning  attention  now  to  the  hay  and  forage  crop,  it 
is  interesting  to  note  that  only  45,000  farmers  out  of 
290,000  in  the  state  of  Georgia  produce  hay  and  forage 
of  any  kind.  In  1909,  they  devoted  253,000  acres  to 
hay  and  forage,  an  average  of  between  five  and  six 
acres  per  farm  reporting.  In  the  community  to  which 
I  refer,  the  farmers  devoted  5471  acres  to  hay  and  forage 
crops,  and  received  in  return  5605  tons  which  is  a  little 
more  than  one  ton  per  acre.     A  very  large  number  of 


ECONOMIC   ACTIVITIES   OF   THE    COMMUNITY  55 

farmers  did  not  have  any  hay  or  forage  crop.  Grain  cut 
green  was  the  largest  individual  forage  crop,  and  after 
this  came  a  group  of  various  tame  and  cultivated  grasses. 
It  would  seem  that  much  more  time,  land,  and  attention 
should  be  devoted  to  these  crops.  In  addition  to  27,000 
acres  devoted  to  corn,  there  were  something  more  than 
4000  acres  devoted  to  oats.  Less  than  800  acres  were 
devoted  to  wheat.  Some  of  the  farmers  produced  dry 
peas  and  a  few  produced  peanuts.  The  total  production 
of  sweet  potatoes  was  about  400  acres,  yielding  35,000 
bushels.  This  is  a  yield  of  about  ninety  bushels  to  the 
acre,  and  demonstrates  clearly  that  the  production  of 
sweet  potatoes  is  economic  and  advantageous.  The 
reports  show  that  38,000  acres  were  devoted  to  cotton 
and  14,000  bales  were  produced. 

Fruit  Production.  —  Apples  are  grown  much  more 
extensively  in  Georgia  than  is  generally  supposed.  In 
the  entire  state,  62,000  farmers,  or  nearly  one  out  of 
every  four,  have  apple  trees  of  bearing  age.  Further 
than  this,  many  farmers  are  setting  out  apple  trees,  and 
at  the  present  time  there  are  more  than  27,000  farmers 
who  have  apple  trees  not  yet  of  bearing  age.  This  is  one 
out  of  every  ten  farmers.  In  the  community  to  which  I 
am  referring,  845  of  the  3092  farmers  reported  apple 
trees,  and  the  average  number  per  farm  is  almost  100. 
It  is  evident  from  this  that  almost  one  third  of  the 
farmers  have  apple  trees,  and  they  have  on  an  average 
more  than  an  acre  devoted  to  this  particular  fruit.  Also, 
358  farmers  have  trees  not  yet  of  bearing  age  and  have 


56  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

an  average  of  almost  sixty  young  trees  per  farm.  It  is 
perfectly  clear  from  this  that  the  farmers  are  interested 
in  the  production  of  apples.  There  is  need  for  a  society 
for  the  marketing  of  apples,  or  the  manufacturing  of 
cider  and  vinegar,  or  for  the  drying,  preserving,  and 
canning  of  the  fruit.  The  individual  farmer  cannot 
handle  his  crop  to  advantage  but  must  join  with  his 
neighbors  who  are  interested  in  the  same  field  of  activity. 
In  1909  the  farmers  in  this  district  produced  something 
more  than  20,000  bushels  of  apples  and  reported  them  to 
be  valued  at  more  than  ninety  cents  a  bushel. 

The  production  of  peaches  is  much  more  common  in 
Georgia  than  is  the  production  of  apples.  It  is  true  that 
there  are  not  many  more  farmers  interested  in  peach 
production  than  in  apple  production,  but  those  who  are 
interested  are  much  more  extensively  engaged.  Nearly 
75,000  farmers,  or  one  fourth  of  the  farmers  in  the 
state,  reported  peach  trees,  and  they  reported  a  total 
of  more  than  10,000,000  trees  of  bearing  age.  This  is 
nearly  150  trees  per  farm  for  the  state  as  a  whole.  New 
trees  are  being  set  out  constantly.  About  one  third 
as  many  farmers  have  young  trees  as  have  mature  trees. 
The  total  number  of  these  young  trees  exceeds  1,500,000. 
In  the  community  to  which  I  refer,  almost  exactly  the 
same  number  of  farmers  have  peach  trees  as  have  apple 
trees.  I  noted  above  that  845  had  apple  trees  and  I 
note  now  that  885  have  peach  trees,  but  I  reported  only 
about  80,000  apple  trees,  whereas  the  885  farmers  have 
more  than  400,000  peach  trees,  or  nearly  500  trees  per 


ECONOMIC  ACflViTiES   OF  THE    COMMUNITY  57 

farm.  A  considerable  number  have  trees  not  yet  of 
bearing  age,  and  the  number  of  those  trees  is  about 
18,000. 

The  greatest  necessity  at  the  present  time  is  the  study 
of  the  best  care  of  these  fruit  trees,  and  the  best  methods 
of  marketing  the  fruit.  The  farmers  should  thoroughly 
organize  to  market  their  fruit,  and  until  they  do  organize 
they  cannot  expect  to  make  much  money  from  their 
enterprises.  Provision  should  be  made  to  dry  and  can 
or  otherwise  preserve  these  fruits  in  season  when  the 
market  is  low,  and  a  general  manager  should  look  after 
the  securing  of  proper  crates,  the  packing,  sorting,  and 
grading  of  the  fruit,  as  well  as  railroad  rates,  market 
prices,  etc.,  if  the  products  are  to  be  sold  as  fresh  fruit. 

The  production  of  pears  is  of  much  less  importance 
in  the  state,  but  even  this  industry  might  easily  develop 
into  one  of  very  large  proportions.  Only  185  of  the  3092 
farmers  in  the  community  under  consideration  reported 
pear  trees.  These  reported  an  average  of  about  twenty- 
five  per  farm.  Such  pears  as  were  produced,  however, 
were  reported  to  be  worth  almost  $1  per  bushel. 

Plums,  like  pears,  hold  a  secondary  place  both  in  the 
state  and  in  the  community  being  studied.  Only  94 
farmers  reported  plum  trees  and  these  reported  an  aver- 
age of  from  forty  to  fifty  trees  per  farm.  About  one 
third  as  many  reported  young  trees  and  these  reported 
an  average  of  ten  trees  per  farm  showing  that  at  least 
a  few  of  the  farmers  are  interested  in  the  building  up  of 
this  industry.    A  study  should  be  made  showing  the 


58  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

successes  and  failures  of  these  few  farmers  who  are 
attempting  to  build  up  this  industry,  and  if  successful 
in  their  efforts  enough  farmers  should  go  into  the  busi- 
ness to  make  a  good  organization  possible.  What  I 
have  said  of  plum  trees  is  equally  true  of  cherry  trees. 
Only  about  one  farmer  out  of  every  thirty  in  the  state 
reports  cherry  trees,  and  the  average  number  of  trees  for 
the  state  as  a  whole  does  not  exceed  five  per  farmer. 
In  this  special  community  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  state,  however,  although  the  number  of  farmers  re- 
porting is  only  eighty-one,  they  have  an  average  of 
thirteen  trees  per  farm.  Such  cherries  as  they  produce 
they  reported  to  be  worth  more  than  $2  a  bushel. 

The  production  of  apricots  is  almost  unknown  in  the 
community  under  consideration.  Six  farmers,  however, 
have  from  one  to  two  trees  and  are  conducting  experi- 
ments. None  of  these  reported  any  production  from 
their  trees.  A  very  small  number  of  farmers  reported 
the  production  of  quinces,  showing  that  this  fruit,  also, 
is  the  subject  of  experiment. 

There  is  at  the  present  time  great  opportunity  to  ex- 
tend the  production  of  several  different  kinds  of  orchard 
fruits,  and  the  farmers  of  this  community  should  not 
be  satisfied  until  they  have  learned  better  how  to  pro- 
duce these  fruits,  to  care  for  their  orchards,  and  to  secure 
the  best  results ;  and  after  they  have  learned  these  lessons 
they  must  turn  their  attention  towards  the  problem  of 
marketing  and  preserving  the  fruit  after  it  is  produced. 

The  production  of  grapes  is  not  carried  on  extensively 


ECONOMIC   ACTIVITIES   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  59 

in  Georgia.  There  are,  however,  a  considerable  number 
of  farmers  who  produce  grapes  and  their  products.  In 
the  state  as  a  whole  nearly  16,000  farmers  report  grape 
vines  of  bearing  age,  and  one  fourth  as  many  report 
grape  vines  not  yet  of  bearing  age.  These  farmers 
reported  that  they  had  some  278,000  mature  grape  vines, 
from  which  they  secured  about  2,767,000  pounds  of 
grapes,  valued  at  approximately  $100,000.  In  the 
community  which  I  have  in  mind,  only  168  farmers  re- 
ported grape  vines  of  bearing  age.  They  have  more  than 
7000  vines,  and  according  to  their  more  recent  reports 
produce  considerably  more  than  50,000  pounds  of  grapes 
in  a  year.  This  is  nearly  eight  pounds  to  the  vine. 
The  total  value  of  the  grapes  produced  amounted  to 
slightly  less  than  $10  per  farm.  This,  however,  is  a 
beginning  and  is  enough  to  give  evidence  of  the  possi- 
bilities, provided  the  farmers  could  devote  time  and 
attention  to  this  industry. 

The  farmers  of  Georgia  produce  comparatively  small 
amounts  of  small  fruits.  Without  going  into  detail,  I 
wish  to  note  that  only  eighteen  of  the  3092  farmers, 
whose  activities  we  are  discussing,  reported  any  amount 
of  strawberries.  These  farmers  reported  nearly  fifty 
acres  devoted  to  strawberries,  and  produced  nearly 
73,000  quarts.  The  average  value  per  quart  was  approx- 
imately ten  cents.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  these 
farmers  produced  more  than  $150  worth  of  strawberries 
per  acre.  Raspberries,  loganberries,  currants,  and  other 
small  fruits  were  almost  entirely  missing. 


6o  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

Vegetables.  —  Every  farmer  should  have  a  farm 
garden,  and  every  farm  family  should  have  vegetables 
for  the  family  table.  It  is  a  striking  fact  that  in  the 
state  of  Georgia,  only  131,000  out  of  every  291,000 
farmers  produced  sweet  potatoes  on  their  farms.  This 
is  less  than  one  half  of  the  farmers.  Only  24,000  farmers 
produced  white  potatoes.  This  is  also  a  very  small 
percentage  of  all  farmers.  A  much  larger  percentage 
of  the  farmers,  however,  had  farm  gardens,  —  215,000 
reporting  at  least  a  small  vegetable  garden.  Of  these, 
37,272  reported  that  their  gardens  were  so  small  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  state  the  area  or  value  of  the 
vegetables  grown.  This  leaves  only  177,000,  or  not 
much  more  than  60  per  cent,  who  have  real  gardens 
worthy  of  the  name.  The  total  area  of  these  gardens 
amounted  to  91,000  acres,  or  approximately  one  half 
acre  per  farm. 

Turning  our  attention  now  to  the  particular  com- 
munity we  have  been  considering,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  2484  of  the  3092  farmers  reported  that  they  had 
farm  gardens.  This  leaves  about  600  without  any  garden 
of  any  kind.  Of  those  who  have  gardens,  423  had  such 
small  ones  that  they  were  unable  to  assign  any  area  or 
value  to  the  products.  This  leaves  2061  farmers  who  had 
vegetable  gardens.  They  reported  a  total  acreage  of 
828,  or  a  little  less  than  one  half  acre  per  farm.  The 
average  value  of  the  vegetables  per  farm  amounted  to 
something  like  $40,  which  means  that  the  average  value 
of  vegetables  per  acre  was  nearly  if  not  quite  $90.    This 


ECONOMIC   ACTIVITIES    OF   THE    COMMUNITY  6 1 

is  a  very  good  showing  for  those  who  had  vegetable 
crops,  and  ought  to  be  encouraged  and  extended.  A 
few  of  these  farmers  are  in  vegetable  production  as  a 
leading  industry.  In  order  to  ascertain  how  many  of 
these  farmers  depended  upon  vegetables  for  their  in- 
come, an  investigation  was  made  to  find  out  how  many 
valued  their  vegetables  at  $500  or  more.  It  was  thought 
that  farmers  who  had  vegetables  valued  at  $500  were 
worthy  of  being  considered  commercial  vegetable 
farmers,  comparable  to  commercial  fruit  farmers  or 
commercial  grain  farmers.  Of  the  3092  farmers  in  this 
community  who  were  interviewed  on  this  subject,  only 
twelve  had  produced  vegetables  with  a  valuation  exceed- 
ing $500.  These  farmers  had  eighty-nine  acres  of  vege- 
tables, which  is  between  seven  and  eight  acres  per  farm. 
From  this  area  were  secured  about  $12,000  worth  of 
vegetables.  This  is  an  average  of  very  nearly  $140  per 
acre.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  whereas  the  average 
farmer  with  a  small  tract  of  land  values  his  vegetables 
at  something  like  $90  an  acre,  the  commercial  gardener, 
who  produces  vegetables  in  quantities  and  attends  his 
crops  carefully,  is  able  to  secure  approximately  $140 
an  acre  from  his  garden  products. 

If  farmers  generally  would  devote  an  acre  or  even  more 
to  vegetables,  and  then  would  systematically  organize 
to  dispose  of  their  surplus,  they  would  find  it  a  very 
profitable  movement.  They  could  have  a  small  canning 
factory,  with  regular  wagons  to  go  about  among  the 
farmers    collecting    surplus  vegetables  of    all    kindis. 


62  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

These  could  be  carried  to  the  cooperative  factory  where 
they  would  be  preserved  for  winter  use,  and  any  surplus 
could  be  shipped  to  distant  parts  in  carload  lots.  Small 
fruits  and  orchard  fruits  would  be  carefully  graded, 
sorted,  packed,  and  prepared  for  shipment  by  these  or- 
ganizations, and  if  the  market  was  not  satisfactory, 
the  peaches  could  be  canned,  the  apples  sliced  and  dried, 
or  made  into  cider  or  vinegar.  There  are  great  oppor- 
tunities along  this  line,  if  farmers  could  only  become 
acquainted  with  the  possibilities. 

Conclusions.  —  There  are  many  economic  activities 
which  the  individual  farmer  with  his  land  and  equip- 
ment and  with  the  aid  of  his  family  is  able  to  carry  on ; 
there  are  many  other  activities  in  which  many  farmers 
must  join  their  efforts.  This  is  the  field  of  rural  eco- 
nomic cooperation.  Aside  from  this  sort  of  cooperation, 
farmers  should  and  to  a  large  extent  do  cooperate  in 
the  building  of  churches,  providing  for  educational  and 
social  activities,  etc.  The  need  for  cooperation  in  con- 
nection with  the  business  side  of  agriculture  is  as  pressing 
as  in  any  other  field  of  activity.  Many  kinds  of  coopera- 
tion not  indicated  in  the  above  paragraphs  must  be 

worked  out  for  each  community. 

J.  L.  C. 

SURVEY   OF    THE   ECONOMIC   RELATIONSHIPS   OF   THE 
COMMUNITY 

I.  What  are  the  economic  relationships  that  exist  within  the 
community?  How  many  families  in  the  community  are  free- 
holders?   How  many  renters?    How  many  dependent?    How 


ECONOMIC   ACTIVITIES    OF   THE   COMMUNITY  63 

many  absentee  landlords  represented  by  community  property 
holdings  ?    How  many  idle  rich  in  the  community  ? 

2.  What  provisions  in  the  community  for  rapid  transportation  ? 
For  rapid  communication?  Has  the  community  well-developed 
systems  of  public  roads?  Has  it  well-developed  means  of  com- 
munication with  other  communities  surrounding,  and  with  the 
State  or  world  at  large  ?  What  are  the  commercial  and  industrial 
relationships  of  your  community  to  surrounding  communities? 
Are  these  relationships  along  lines  of  easiest  access  ? 

3.  What  is  the  average  size  of  the  farms  of  the  community  ? 
Are  the  farms  adequately  developed  ?  Is  there  waste  land  because 
of  community  social  forms  of  ownership  ?  To  what  extent  is  the 
total  available  agricultural  land  improved  ?  What  is  the  average 
value  of  farm  property?  How  does  this  average  compare  with 
the  values  in  surrounding  communities  ?  If  greater  or  less,  what 
reasons  ?  What  is  the  source  of  supply  of  farm  labor  in  the  busy 
seasons  ?  What  wages  are  paid  ?  Are  these  normal  or  abnormal 
wages  ?  What  is  the  normal  relationship  between  the  number  of 
farmers  and  unattached  laborers  in  your  community?  Do  these 
relationships  develop  any  unsettled  economic  conditions?  Is 
there  any  economic  agitation  or  unrest  in  the  community  ?  What 
forms  do  these  agitations  take?  Are  they  developing  political 
aflSliations  ? 

4.  What  are  the  means  and  methods  of  marketing  the  products 
of  the  community  ?  Are  these  carefully  planned  out  ?  Is  the 
method  employed  that  of  individual  sale,  or  are  there  cooperative 
corporations  or  associations?  Has  anything  of  a  cooperative 
nature  ever  been  undertaken  ?    If  so,  what  was  its  history  ? 

5.  What  is  the  economic  status  of  the  women  of  the  community  ? 
What  are  the  prospects  before  young  men  and  young  women  as 
to  life  in  their  own  community?  What  are  the  ideals  of  the 
boys  and  young  men  with  reference  to  work  ?  Is  there  any  par- 
ticular drift  from  the  country  to  the  city  in  your  community? 
Is  there  any  return  movement  from  the  city  back  to  the  land? 


64  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

To  what  extent  do  the  members  of  the  community,  whether  farmers 
or  business  men,  look  upon  work  as  something  to  be  escaped 
from?  To  what  extent  are  the  schools  educating  for  hves  of 
work  ?  To  what  extent  do  the  economic  activities  of  the  com- 
munity enter  into  the  curriculum  of  the  schools  of  the  community  ? 
To  what  extent  is  the  teacher  acquainted  with  the  economic  Ufe 
of  the  community?  To  what  extent  do  the  economic  demands 
of  the  community  make  themselves  felt  upon  the  life  of  the  school  ? 
Could  a  survey  similar  to  the  above  be  worked  out  in  your 
commimity  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Adams.    Science  of  Finance. 

Adkinson.    Distribution  of  Products. 

AvES.     Cooperative  Industries. 

Bailey.    Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture.    4  Vols. 

Daistiel.     Taxation. 

Emerson  and  Flint.    Manual  of  Agriculture. 

Fairchild.    Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare. 

Fay.    Cooperation  at  Home  and  Abroad. 

Fraser.    America  at  Work. 

Hadley.    Railroads. 

Hobson.     Cooperative  Labor  on  the  Land. 

Meyer.    Railway  Legislation  in  U.  S.     (1903.) 

Pratt.    Organization  of  Agriculture. 
Small  Holders. 

Roberts.     The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook. 

Seligman.    Essays  on  Taxation. 

Wall.     Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen. 

Fay,  C.  R.  Cooperation  at  Home  and  Abroad.  (New  York, 
1908.) 

Nicholson,  J.  S.  The  Relations  of  Rents,  Wages,  and  Profits  in 
Agriculture  and  their  Bearing  on  Rural  Depopulation.  (Lon- 
don, 1906.) 


ECONOMIC   ACTIVITIES    OF   THE    COMMUNITY  65 

Card,  F.  W.    Farm  Management.     (New  York,  1909.) 
Adams,  Edward  F.     The  Modern  Farmer  in  His  Business  Rela- 
tions.    (San  Francisco,  1899.) 
Aldrich,  Wilbur.    Farming  Corporations.    (New  York,  1892.) 
Hale,  J.  H.     The  Business  Side  of  Agriculture.    Massachusetts 

Public  Documents.     (New  York,  1898.) 
Caird,  Sir  James.     The  Landed  Interest  and  the  Supply  of  Food. 
(London,  1878.) 
(Xevy,  J.  H.  (Ed.).    Symposium  on  the  Land  Question. 
Kropotkin,  p.     Fields^    Factories,  and    Workshops.     (Boston, 
1899.) 


CHAPTER  V 

COMMUNITY  HEALTH,  HYGIENE,  AND  SANI- 
TATION 

The  word  community  may  have  a  large  range  of  mean- 
ing. In  the  present  sense  "  the  community  "  is  meant 
to  include  only  rural  neighborhoods,  villages,  and  small 
towns.  In  other  words,  those  social  units  which  are 
sufficiently  small  for  every  one  to  know  practically  all 
his  neighbors. 

It  is  precisely  in  these  smaller  social  units  that  the 
progress  of  modern  sanitation  has  lagged  behind  the 
most.  Why  has  this  been  so?  Is  it  possible  to  apply 
the  principles  of  modern  sanitation  to  these  small  com- 
munities ? 

From  time  immemorial  poets,  philosophers,  and  his- 
torians have  pointed  out  that  people  in  the  country  were 
healthier,  happier,  of  greater  physical  stamina,  and  longer 
lived  than  in  the  city.  It  had  always  been  held  self- 
evident  that  man  must  run  more  risk  of  disease  in  cities 
than  in  villages  and  rural  districts,  and  until  the  estab- 
lishment of  modern  sanitary  science  this  view  was  sub- 
stantiated by  facts.  The  death  rates  of  cities  were 
higher  than  those  of  small  towns  and  rural  districts  — 
frequently  almost  twice  as  high.  Naturally  there  grew 
up  a  universal  belief,  still  tenaciously  held,  that  the  city 

66 


COMMUNITY   HEALTH,    HYGIENE,    AND    SANITATION       67 

dweller  alone  stood  in  need  of  protection  for  his  health's 
sake ;  a  belief  that  Nature  herself  did  the  service  of  health 
officer  for  the  dweller  in  the  open  places,  and  that  her 
care  was  continuous  and  that  her  methods  could  not  be 
bettered.  This  fallacious  idea  is  still  the  greatest  ob- 
stacle to  the  progress  of  sanitation  in  the  villages  and 
farms  of  the  nation. 

In  reality  many  of  the  largest  cities,  thanks  to 
modern  sanitary  science,  now  have  lower  rates  of  death 
and  of  sickness  than  the  rural  sections  and  small  towns  in 
their  vicinity.  Every  year  shows  the  larger  cities  de- 
creasing their  death  rates,  while  the  death  rates  for  rural 
sections  either  decrease  very,  very  slowly  or  not  at  all. 
Moreover,  in  these  muckraking  days,  sanitarians  are  not 
lacking  in  the  land  who  are  shattering  to  its  last  founda- 
tions our  long  cherished  belief  in  the  superiority  of  the 
country  as  regards  everything  that  makes  for  health. 
They  declare  that  the  city  of  to-day  is  not  only  healthier 
than  the  average  rural  community  but  that  it  would  be 
still  freer  from  contagious  disease  if  it  were  not  for  the 
baneful  influence  of  its  insanitary  rural  neighbors.  Sad 
days  for  the  sentimentalists  are  these  when  the  cold 
hearted  scientist  is  not  content  with  defaming  the  well 
of  "The  Old  Oaken  Bucket,"  by  asserting  that  the 
water  from  the  apartment  house  tap  is  of  better  sanitary 
quality,  but  even  goes  farther  and  proves  in  his  most 
exasperating,  irrefutable  fashion  that  "  The  Old  Oaken 
Bucket,"  in  many  cases,  actually  brings  up  the  deadly 
t3^hoid  germs  concealed  in  its  sparkling  clear  water. 


68  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

But  SO  it  is.  The  facts  are  with  the  iconoclast  in 
many  respects.  Thus  it  has  come  about  that  the  modern 
progressive  city  must  jealously  watch  her  country  neigh- 
bors to  protect  the  Hves  and  health  of  her  own  citizens. 
The  privies  and  barnyards  of  villages  and  farms  are 
polluting  the  city  watershed ;  the  milk  from  dirty  farm- 
houses is  continually  producing  fatal  diarrhea  in  city 
infants,  sowing  the  seeds  of  tuberculosis  in  city  children, 
and  every  now  and  then  causing  an  outbreak  of  typhoid, 
diphtheria,  or  scarlet  fever  among  the  city's  citizens  of 
all  ages. 

The  reason  why  there  is  crying  need  for  greater  in- 
terest in  sanitation  in  the  smaller  communities  is  because 
such  communities,  hugging  the  delusion  of  superiority 
over  the  cities  in  matters  of  health,  have  done  nothing 
to  insure  good  health  for  themselves;  hence,  the  in- 
evitable result  that  they  are  being  hygienically  outclassed 
by  the  cities  who  have  more  than  overcome  by  science 
the  handicap  imposed  by  nature. 

Granted  that  there  is  need  of  hygienic  awakening  in 
the  smaller  communities,  there  still  remains  the  question 
of  how  sanitary  advances  can  be  made  in  our  smaller 
social  units.  Man's  fundamental  sanitary  needs  are 
the  same  whether  he  live  in  Chicago  or  in  the  valley 
of  the  Yakima.  He  needs  pure  water,  pure  milk,  pure 
food,  pure  air,  protection  against  contagious  disease  and 
accident,  sanitary  housing,  proper  preparation  of  his 
food,  conditions  of  labor  which  do  not  involve  exhaus- 
tion and  depletion  of  his  vitality,  reasonable  hours  of 


COMMUNITY   HEALTH,   HYGIENE,    AND    SANITATION        69 

rest,  a  certain  amount  of  recreation,  and  safe  disposal 
of  the  wastes  of  mankind,  animals,  and  industrial  es- 
tablishments. 

The  ends  are  the  same,  the  means  must  of  necessity 
vary  widely,  but  they  are  almost  everywhere  within 
reach.  The  fact  that  the  dweller  in  the  rural  hamlet 
cannot  have  a  municipally  guarded  and  purified  water 
supply  is  no  valid  reason  why  he  should  consider  it  nec- 
essary to  allow  his  shallow  well  to  receive  the  drainage 
of  his  privy  and  barnyard.  Yet  how  often  does  the  rural 
citizen  seem  to  make  his  sanitary  arrangements  on  that 
basis ! 

The  kind  of  dwelling  in  which  people  live  is  far  more 
easily  controlled  by  the  individual  in  the  country  than 
in  the  city.  In  the  city  building  restrictions,  location 
of  streets,  the  direction  in  which  the  lots  face,  the 
nearness  to  the  neighboring  buildings,  all  have  their 
effect  upon  the  dwelling  and  all  are  largely  beyond  the 
control  of  the  individual.  But  in  villages,  and  to  an 
even  greater  extent  in  the  open  country,  all  these 
things  are  under  the  individuaFs  control. 

A  locality  with  good  natural  drainage,  preferably  with 
a  sHght  elevation  and  with  a  pleasant  southern  exposure, 
has  long  been  recognized  by  the  common  experience  of 
mankind  as  the  greatest  desideratum  in  a  country 
residence.  Yet  how  frequently  in  a  region  where  all 
these  conditions  could  be  easily  fulfilled  will  the  t3^ical 
farmhouse  be  found  in  a  damp  bottom,  with  the  sun 
cut  off  for  a  large  portion  of  the  day,  and  receiving 


70  EDUCATIONAL   EESOURCES 

the  surface  drainage  of  the  outhouses  located  on  higher 
ground  ? 

The  old  idea  of  keeping  nearly  all  the  rooms  of  a  dwell- 
ing shut  and  the  windows  tightly  closed  has,  happily, 
largely  become  a  thing  of  the  past,  yet  adequate  domestic 
ventilation,  especially  of  sleeping  apartments,  is  all  too 
infrequently  practiced  to-day. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  problem  that  smaller  communities 
have  to  face  from  a  sanitary  standpoint  is  the  inter- 
related problem  of  drinking  water  and  disposal  of  wastes. 
If  the  community  is  too  small  or  too  scattered  to  admit 
of  a  community  water  supply,  then  the  citizens  must 
usually  depend  upon  individual  wells.  It  is  frequently 
assumed  that  wells  are  inherently  dangerous.  In 
reality,  a  well  properly  chosen  and  properly  protected 
is  frequently  a  safer  source  of  water  than  many  city 
supplies.  But  only  too  frequently  can  the  well  be  found 
utterly  unprotected  from  surface  pollution,  shallow,  un- 
cleaned,  and  directly  in  the  path  of  seepage  from  privy 
vaults  on  higher  ground. 

The  toilet  in  small  communities  is  another  serious 
sanitary  problem.  The  crude,  old-fashioned,  open  privy 
vault  is  too  prevalent.  There  have  been  many  varieties 
of  sewage  disposal  evolved  for  isolated  dwellings  based 
upon  the  septic  tank  principle,  which  will  work  in  prac- 
tice as  well  as  in  theory  if  they  be  scientifically  con- 
structed and  properly  calculated  as  to  size.  Even  if 
flush  toilets  are  not  available,  the  ordinary  toilet  can  be 
vastly  improved  by  the  installation  of  screens,  regular 


COMMUNITY   HEALTH,    HYGIENE,    AND    SANITATION       7 1 

disinfection  with  lime,  and  periodical  cleaning.  Where 
toilets  must  of  necessity  be  located  within  dangerously 
near  proximity  to  equally  inevitable  wells,  there  should 
be  a  rigidly  enforced  community  law  that  all  such 
toilets  must  be  constructed  with  water-tight  vaults,  of 
concrete  preferably,  so  that  there  can  be  no  pollution 
of  the  wells.  The  cesspool  has  been  characterized  by 
an  indignant  health  official  as  the  sanitary  abomination ; 
yet  in  some  form  or  other  they  are  frequently  necessary. 
If  they  receive  only  kitchen  waste  and  are  properly  con- 
structed they  are  not  particularly  dangerous  from  a 
sanitary  standpoint.  Even  though  they  receive  the 
entire  sewage  of  a  household  they  can  frequently  be  so 
arranged  in  respect  to  location  and  character  of  construc- 
tion as  to  be  not  objectionable.  As  a  rule,  there  is 
nothing  which  so  well  repays  the  financial  sacrifice  by 
small  communities  as  the  installation  of  a  sewerage 
system  at  the  earliest  possible  opportunity.  But  if 
such  a  system  is  contemplated,  the  doctrine  of  the 
"  square  deal  "  ought  to  be  enough  to  restrain  any  com- 
munity from  dumping  its  sewage  into  the  drinking  water 
of  a  sister  community. 

Garbage  collection  and  destruction  is  another  neces- 
sity of  community  life  which  is  often  erroneously  sup- 
posed to  concern  larger  cities  alone.  How  often  will  the 
visiting  sanitarian  be  told  that  a  certain  community  has 
no  garbage  problem  because  every  one  disposes  of  his 
own,  and  how  frequently  will  a  half  hour  inspection  of 
village  back  lots  annihilate  this  pleasant  little  fiction! 


72  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

And  how  long  will  American  communities  be  content 
to  have  one  clean-up  day  a  year  or  a  decade  instead  of 
treating  the  removal  of  garbage  and  refuse  as  it  should 
be  treated  —  as  a  community  problem,  to  be  promptly 
and  efficiently  handled  by  the  community  ? 

The  fly  has  come  in  for  a  great  deal  of  adverse  promi- 
nence in  the  past  few  years,  and  deservedly  so.  "  Musca 
Domestica  "  is  a  bad  citizen!  But  there  is  small  oppor- 
tunity of  suppressing  him  by  swat  tings,  screens,  traps, 
and  poisons  while  unprotected  and  undisturbed  manure 
piles  and  privies  continue  to  fulfill  their  function  as  fly 
incubators. 

The  city  dweller  has  his  milk  supply  scrutinized  by 
scores  of  watchful  officials  and  safeguarded  by  many 
carefully  enforced  provisions  which  go  far  to  offset  the 
handicap  of  long  transportation  and  the  handling  in- 
volved. But  the  villager,  living  within  a  few  miles  of 
the  dairies  from  which  his  milk  supply  comes,  fre- 
quently needs  to  summon  the  faith  that  will  stub- 
bornly ignore  the  evidence  of  the  senses,  and  go  on  the 
hypothesis  that  to  the  pure  all  things  are  pure  before  he 
can  swallow  with  equanimity  the  bacterial  aquarium  that 
is  left  in  his  milk  can  daily. 

Those  who  have  visited  rural  slaughterhouses  are 
fully  aware  of  two  facts;  first,  that  it  is  no  superhuman 
feat  to  keep  a  small  slaughterhouse,  located  in  a  se- 
cluded field  or  near  the  bank  of  a  beautiful  running 
brook,  in  a  neat,  clean,  and  presentable  condition,  and, 
secondly,  that  this  is  very  seldom  done.    Tongue  cannot 


COMMUNITY   HEALTH,   HYGIENE,    AND   SANITATION       73 

tell  nor  pen  describe  the  type  of  slovenly  kept,  foul, 
insanitary  rural  slaughterhouse  so  often  found  by  any  one 
who  will  take  the  trouble  to  make  even  the  most  super- 
ficial inspection.  It  needs  the  combined  evidence  of  the 
optic  and  olfactory  organs  to  paint  that  vivid  picture  upon 
the  brain,  but  once  experienced  it  will  never  be  forgotten. 

The  community  schools  should  be  sanitary  models 
for  all  its  citizens.  They  should  be  models  of  cleanHness, 
good  lighting,  good  water  supply,  proper  ventilation, 
and  of  adequate  sanitary  toilet  facihties,  including 
sanitary  facilities  for  drinking  water.  In  them  the 
future  citizens  of  the  nation  spend  nearly  half  their  wak- 
ing hours  most  of  the  months  of  the  years  which  have  the 
most  important  bearing  upon  their  character  formation 
and  upon  their  final  physical  development. 

The  teacher  in  the  pubHc  schools  should  be  sufiiciently 
posted  in  the  rudiments  of  private  and  public  hygiene, 
and  should  be  sufficiently  awake  to  the  vital  importance 
of  the  subject  to  inculcate  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils 
daily  some  practical  application  of  hygienic  principles. 

Not  many  years  ago  public  health  was  often  regarded 
as  synonymous  with  epidemiology.  Men  felt  that  if 
special  guards  were  appointed,  quarantine  rigidly  main- 
tained, and  elaborate  disinfection  measures  carried  out 
during  times  of  epidemic  peril,  all  had  been  done  that  was 
humanly  possible ;  then  the  balance  of  the  responsibiHty 
was  conveniently  shifted  on  to  "  Divine  Providence," 
and  the  community  went  on  its  way  as  usual  until  a 
new  outbreak  occurred. 


74  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

Each  year  it  is  being  better  appreciated  that 
epidemics  and  contagious  diseases,  both  important  com- 
munity problems  as  they  are,  fall  far  short  of  compris- 
ing the  entire  field  of  pubHc  health  and  sanitation.  At 
the  same  time  the"  manner  of  handling  and  the  check- 
ing or  prevention  of  outbreaks  of  contagious  diseases  is 
one  of  the  community's  most  important  moral  obliga- 
tions. Contagious  diseases  can  only  be  checked  or 
prevented  by  intelligent  watchfulness  and  care.  A 
portion  of  this  protection  against  contagious  diseases 
the  nation  provides,  another  portion  is  extended  by  the 
activities  of  the  state  and  county  health  organizations, 
but  a  very  large  proportion  of  this  protection  must  be 
provided  by  the  local  community,  whether  that  com- 
munity be  large  or  small. 

What  is  everybody's  business  is  usually  nobody's 
business,  hence  the  necessity  of  the  health  official. 

One  of  the  great  economic  and  social  lessons  that 
the  American  people  must  learn  in  the  next  generation 
is  that  there  is  as  great  if  not  greater  need  for  the  serv- 
ices of  the  trained  sanitarian  in  the  country  as  in  the 
city.  He  must  develop  his  style  of  attack  against  the 
three  great  mortal  enemies  of  man  —  Ignorance,  Filth, 
and  Disease,  along  quite  different  lines  from  those  of  his 
colleague,  the  municipal  sanitarian.  Nevertheless,  his 
services  are  just  as  badly  needed  and  just  as  valuable. 
He  must  supervise  the  health  of  the  children  in  their 
schools,  he  must  scrutinize  the  wells,  the  houses,  the  out- 
houses, the  dairies,  the  yards,  and  the  manure  piles.     He 


COMMUNITY   HEALTH,    HYGIENE,    AND   SANITATION       75 

must  call  attention  to  any  conditions  that  are  prejudicial 
to  the  health,  safety,  and  comfort  of  the  community,  and 
insist  by  persuasion  usually,  by  legal  means  very  rarely, 
that  all  such  conditions  be  remedied.  He  must  study 
the  channels  of  infection  and  endeavor  to  prevent  any 
infectious  diseases  from  obtaining  a  foothold  in  his  com- 
munity, and  if  they  do  crop  up,  in  spite  of  his  endeavors, 
then  he  must  exert  himself  to  the  utmost  to  prevent 
their  dissemination  broadcast  through  his  jurisdiction. 

And,  finally,  every  community  should  insist  that  its 
vital  bookkeeping  be  kept  up  to  date.  The  progressive 
citizen,  and  particularly  the  progressive  educator, 
should  not  be  content  to  remain  in  ignorance  as  to  the 
significance  of  the  death  rate.  And  the  intelhgent  citi- 
zen of  any  community,  large  or  small,  should  not  only 
know  what  the  death  rate  of  his  community  is  from  year 
to  year,  but  he  should  know  what  it  has  been  for  years 
back.  And  if  he  finds  that  there  has  been  a  standstill 
or  an  increase  in  his  community's  death  rate  for  the 
past  two  decades,  then  let  him  bestir  himself  and 
begin  to  arouse  his  fellow  citizens,  for  he  is  hving  in  a 
community  which  has  failed  to  keep  up  with  the  spirit 
of  the  twentieth  century. 

And  if  upon  inquiry  he  should  find  that  he  is  living 
in  a  community  which  does  not  even  regard  human  life 
as  of  sufficient  value  to  keep  the  tally  of  the  deaths  of  its 
citizens,  then  let  him  bestir  himself  with  double  vigor ; 
for,  from  the  standpoint  of  public  health,  he  is  living 
in  a  semibarbarous  and  not  in  a  civilized  community. 

E.  R.  K. 


76  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

SURVEY   OF    THE    CONDITIONS    OF    HEALTH,    HYGIENE, 
AND   SANITATION  IN  THE  LOCAL  COMMUNITY 

1.  What  is  the  average  death  rate  of  your  community?  What 
is  the  death  rate  for  the  children  of  your  community?  Have 
there  been  any  serious  epidemics  in  the  community  in  the  past 
decade  ?  What  kind,  if  any  ?  What  were  their  causes  ?  Have 
the  causes  been  determined  and  removed  ?  What  is  the  attitude 
of  the  community  with  reference  to  sickness  and  epidemics ;  that 
is,  does  the  community  accept  these  things  as  natural  and  neces- 
sary, or  is  there  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  a  great 
many  dreaded  diseases  are  preventable?  Are  there  many  cases 
of  typhoid  fever  in  the  community?  Is  there  some  genuine  in- 
formation in  the  community  in  reference  to  the  causes  of  typhoid 
fever  ? 

2.  What  is  the  general  standard  of  vitahty  in  the  people  of  the 
community  ?  Are  they  energetic,  full  of  Hfe,  or  lacking  in  vitahty  ? 
Are  there  any  reasons  for  the  conditions  that  exist?  Are  there 
any  social  excuses  extant  for  the  persistence  of  community  hygienic 
conditions?  What  is  the  community  attitude  toward  questions 
of  drinking  water,  milk,  stale  foods,  and  the  like  ?  Has  there 
been  any  sort  of  crusade  against  flies  and  other  insects  that  spread 
infection  and  contagion? 

3.  What  factors  may  tend  to  make  a  well  dangerous  and  con- 
taminate the  drinking  water?  What  factors  may  make  milk 
impure?  What  conditions  about  the  home  may  become  sources 
of  disease  ?  Is  the  community  backward  in  any  of  its  provisions 
for  complete  sanitation  ? 

4.  Are  the  health  officers  of  the  community  intelligent  and 
alert  in  doing  their  duty?  Are  sources  of  contagion  and  con- 
tamination immediately  investigated  and  controlled  ?  Will  public 
opinion  permit  social  control  of  health  conditions  in  the  com- 
munity? Are  the  local  doctors  capable  and  responsible  in  these 
matters  ? 


COMMUNITY   HEALTH,   HYGIENE,    AND    SANITATION       77 

5.  Why  is  the  average  typhoid  death  rate  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  about  four  times  as  high  as  in  Europe  ?  Why  do  a 
large  percentage  of  all  infants  born  in  the  United  States  die  before 
they  are  a  year  old?  Whose  fault  is  it  that  these  things  are 
true  ?  What  is  being  done  by  your  community  toward  develop- 
ing a  greater  intelligence  in  reference  to  the  problems  of  health, 
of  general  hygiene,  and  community  sanitary  conditions  ? 

6.  What  is  being  done  by  your  school  toward  promoting  com- 
munity intelligence  along  these  lines?  What  is  being  done  in 
your  school  to  safeguard  the  health  and  vitality  of  the  children 
themselves?  How  often  should  the  air  of  a  schoolroom  be 
changed?  Is  there  any  special  ventilating  system  employed  in 
your  school?  What  is  the  proper  ratio  between  window  space 
and  floor  space  in  a  schoolroom  ?  (See  Dressier,  American  School- 
houses,  published  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education.) 
What  measures  do  you  follow  for  safeguarding  the  vision  of  the 
boys  and  girls  in  the  schoolroom  ?  To  what  extent,  if  any,  does 
school  work  tend  to  lower  the  level  of  vitality  of  your  boys  and 
girls?  Are  they  paying  for  their  intellectual  advancement  in 
lowered  physical  vitality?  Are  you  taking  steps  to  make  sure 
that  the  teeth  of  the  children  are  being  properly  cared  for  ?  Are 
there  any  feeble-minded  or  defective  children  in  the  school  who 
are  a  dead  weight  upon  the  school  and  who  should  be  in  appro- 
priate institutions?  Are  there  any  with  nervous  disorders  or 
epileptics  who  are  not  being  properly  cared  for  ?  Does  the  general 
atmosphere  of  the  school  tend  to  preserve  a  healthy  state  of  mind 
and  body  in  the  children  of  the  schools?  If  not,  why?  Does 
the  work  of  the  school  tend  to  produce  unnatural  strains  on  the 
teacher?    If  so,  why? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

It  is  impossible  at  present  to  select  any  one  or  any  group  of 
works  that  will  cover  this  subject.  Most  of  the  State  Boards  of 
Health  and  the  United  States  Public  Health  Service,  and  the 


78  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

Health  Departments  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  country  publish 
bulletins  and  reports.  Requests  to  the  secretary  of  any  State 
Board  of  Health,  stating  upon  just  what  topic  information  is 
desired,  will  be  at  once  answered,  and  if  the  State  has  any  bulle- 
tins on  that  subject  they  are  furnished  free  of  charge  up  to  the 
limit  of  the  edition. 

The  United  States  Public  Health  Service  Reports  can  be  ob- 
tained by  forwarding  to  the  Surgeon- General  of  the  Service, 
Washington,  D.C.,  a  request  to  be  placed  on  the  mailing  hst. 
The  teacher  or  citizen  who  wishes  information  on  some  particular 
problem  of  sanitation  will  probably  obtain  much  more  satisfactory 
assistance  if  when  communicating  with  the  United  States  PubUc 
Health  Service  they  specify  exactly  on  what  points  information  is 
desired,  than  by  simply  making  a  general  request  for  publications. 

Without  in  any  way  reflecting  adversely  upon  the  most  useful 
and  excellent  bulletins  of  other  State  Boards,  the  following  are 
suggested  as  being  particularly  readable  for  non-technical  readers, 
and,  to  a  slight  extent,  for  specific  purposes,  although  it  must 
be  understood  that  practically  every  State  Board  of  Health  that 
publishes  bulletins  regularly  will  in  a  year  cover  a  larger  range  of 
subjects  than  those  referred  to  here.  A  few  of  the  State  Board 
bulletins  are  practically  unreadable,  being  composed  almost 
entirely  of  statistical  data. 

The  following  State  Boards  of  Health  issue  from  time  to  time 
exceptionally  good  special  articles  on  individual  contagious 
diseases : 

Maine  South  Carolina 

Pennsylvania  Illinois 

Michigan 

The  following  State  Boards  of  Health  often  feature  pure  food 
articles : 

Massachusetts  Kansas 

Indiana  California 


COMMUNITY   HEALTH,    HYGIENE,    AND   SANITATION       79 

Topics  such  as  sewage  disposal  and  water  supply  are  often 
treated  by  bulletins  of  the  Boards  of  Health  of : 
New  York  California 

Ohio  Iowa 

Rural  sanitation  has  been  made  particularly  prominent  in  the 
South  because  of  the  hookworm  campaign.  The  Florida,  Loui- 
siana, North  Carolina,  and  Virginia  State  Boards  of  Health  bulle- 
tins are  exceptionally  good  reading  for  the  amateur  student  of 
sanitation  who  is  interested  in  this  subject. 

Such  subjects  as  school  hygiene,  the  common  drinking  cup, 
tuberculosis,  the  fly  nuisance,  etc.,  have  been  discussed  in  the  past 
few  years  by  nearly  all  State  Boards  of  Health  that  publish  bulle- 
tins. 

General  References 

Elementary.     (For  school  use.) 

Ritchie.    Primer  of  Sanitation. 

TuTTLE.    Principles  of  Public  Health. 

GuLiCK.     Hygiene  Series. 

Hutchinson.     Handbook  of  Health. 

Advanced. 

Harrington  and  Richardson.    Practical  Hygiene. 

Bergey.     Principles  of  Hygiene. 

Egbert.    Hygiene  and  Sanitation. 

Blair.    Public  Hygiene.     (2  Vols.) 

WmTELEGGE  AND  Newman.    Hygiene  and  Public  Health. 

W.  H.  Allen.    Civics  and  Health. 

All  these  works  are  intended  for  advanced  students,  but  none  of 
them  are  written  in  a  technical  fashion  and  all  can  be  easily  read 
and,  except  for  occasional  paragraphs,  easily  understood  by  any 
intelligent  person.  Every  public  Hbrary  should  have  at  least  one 
of  these  works  or  those  of  some  other  author  of  equal  standing.  It 
is  to  be  remembered  that  the  science  of  public  hygiene  has  advanced 


8o  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

SO  rapidly  that  editions  of  the  standard  works  that  are  over  ten 
years  old  are  apt  to  be  very  misleading  in  important  essentials, 
while  the  standard  works  of  a  generation  ago,  the  kind  most  apt 
to  be  found  in  public  libraries,  are  almost  useless,  and  their  study 
will  only  lead  to  confusion. 

Periodical  References 

There  are  several  magazines  and  journals  which  are  devoted 
to  public  health  topics  either  entirely  or  to  a  considerable  extent, 
while  the  popular  magazines,  so  called,  are  devoting  considerable 
space  to  sanitation  of  recent  years.  The  following  journals  are 
especially  recommended : 

American  Journal  of  Public  Health  (New  York). 

Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association  (Chicago). 

The  Survey  (New  York). 

The  Journal  of  Outdoor  Life  (New  York). 

The  Public  Health  Journal  (Toronto,  Ontario). 

Among  the  popular  magazines,  the  following  are  perhaps 
worthy  of  special  notice  because  of  the  frequency  with  which 
public  health  topics  are  treated : 

The  Literary  Digest  (New  York). 
The  Technical  World  Magazine, 
The  World's  Work. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  there  are  several  periodicals  which 
though  printing  much  of  value  to  their  readers  in  the  line  of  sani- 
tation, at  the  same  time  either  present  it  in  a  "Muckraking"  or 
"Yellow  Journalistic"  form,  or  else  utilize  their  sanitation  articles 
merely  as  a  basis  for  pseudo-scientific  arguments  in  favor  of  some 
eating,  breathing,  exercise,  or  fasting  cult.  These  faddist  publica- 
tions are,  on  the  whole,  hindering  rather  than  aiding  the  progress 
of  intelligent  practical  sanitation.  There  are  several  periodicals 
issued  more  or  less  regularly  by  chemical  and  other  manufacturing 


COMMUNITY   HEALTH,    HYGIENE,    AND    SANITATION        8 1 

concerns  whose  products  are  of  some  sanitary  nature.  While  all 
of  these  are  frankly  of  an  advertising  nature,  yet  some  of  these 
publications  have  real  scientific  and  literary  merit.  "Modern 
Sanitation,"  published  by  the  Standard  Mfg.  Co.,  of  Pittsburg, 
deserves  special  mention  among  this  class  of  publications  for  its 
high  grade  Hterary,  scientific,  and  typographical  quaUty. 

Special  Subjects 

The  number  of  excellent  works  on  special  subjects  of  sanitary 
interest,  written  for  a  nontechnical  class  of  readers,  has  become 
very  great  in  the  past  few  years.  References  can  only  be  made  to 
a  few: 

The  Infant,  the  Parent,  and  the  State  Health  (London). 

Mason.     Water  Supply. 

CosGROVE.     The  History  of  Sanitation, 

L.  O.  Howard.     The  Mosquito. 

L.  O.  Howard.    The  House  Fly, 

Whipple.     Typhoid  Fever. 

HuBER.    Consumption  and  Civilization. 

RosENAU.     The  Milk  Question. 

There  are  many  good  books  adapted  to  popular  reading  on 
the  tuberculosis  problem  —  too  many  to  allow  of  special  men- 
tion. The  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  or  of  the  local 
or  State  Antituberculosis  organization  is  as'a  rule  the  best  source 
from  which  to  seek  information  on  this  subject. 

Special  Reports 

There  are  being  constantly  published  by  federal,  state,  and  city 
governments    special    reports   and    monographs   of    exceptional 
interest  from  the  standpoint  of  sanitation.    Among  such  sources 
of  sanitary  information  are : 
The  Report  of  the  Country  Life  Commission. 

6 


82  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

The  Report  of  the   Committee  of  One  Hundred  on  National 

Vitality. 
Report  on  Sanitary  Campaign  in  Minnesota,  By  Caroline  Bartlett 

Crane,  published  by  the  Minnesota '^State  Board  of  Health. 
The  Annual  Mortality  Reports  of  the  Census  Bureau. 
Certain  Bulletins  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
Reports  of  the  Annual  Conference  of  Health  Officers  of  many 

States. 
U.  S.  PubHc  Health  Reports,  Washington,  D.C. 
Certain  Bulletins  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Labor. 
Reports  of  the  Hookworm  Commission. 
Reports  of  Carnegie  Foundation. 
Reports  of  the  Annual  Sessions  of  : 

The  National  Tuberculosis  Association. 

The  National  Association  for  Prevention  of  Infant  Mortality. 

The  National  Association  for  Sex  Hygiene. 

The  Conference  of  State  &  Provincial  Boards  of  Health. 

The  American  Association  of  Medical  Milk  Commissions. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE   LOCAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   COMMUNITY 

Europeans  regard  a  general  knowledge  of  the  history 
of  their  country,  province,  and  city  as  an  essential 
factor  in  even  an  elementary  education.  Inquiry  by 
the  American  visitor  will  lead  to  the  discovery  that 
almost  every  intelligent  peasant  boy  is  at  least  fairly 
informed  about  the  annals  of  the  locality ;  its  heroes  are 
his  own,  its  glory  is  reflected  in  the  enthusiasm  with  which 
he  recites  their  deeds  to  the  passing  stranger.  But  when 
the  immigrant,  emerging  from  such  a  background,  ar- 
rives in  America,  he  is  apt  to  find  that  those  among 
whom  his  social  lot  is  cast  know  Uttle  of  our  national 
history  and  virtually  nothing  of  the  career  of  the  state 
or  city;  his  children  are  not  even  taught  local  history 
in  the  public  schools.  Small  wonder  if  he  concludes 
that  America  has  no  history  worth  the  telling,  no  state 
or  city  heroes  worthy  the  name ;  that  America  "  just 
grew  up,''  and  is  merely  a  land  of  opportunity  in  which  to 
make  dollars. 

Can  American  patriots  be  made  out  of  these  foreigners, 
in  the  face  of  such  neglect?  Can  a  man  be  taught  to 
love  his  country  or  his  state  or  city,  unless  he  is  taught 
that  great  deeds  have  here  been  done,  that  her  high  ideals 

83 


84  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

are  cherished,  that  his  locaHty  has  been  and  is  a  factor 
in  civilizing  the  New  World  ?  Are  even  our  American- 
born  boys  and  girls  being  made  into  the  same  sort  of 
patriots  that  they  rear  abroad?  Is  it  not  time  that  as 
teachers  we  pay  some  regard  to  our  state  and  local 
history ;  that  we  begin  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  this  study 
in  the  minds  of  youth,  and  therein  lay  the  foundations 
for  that  love  of  locaHty,  which  is  the  essence  of  civic 
patriotism  ? 

Much  account  is  now  justly  being  taken  in  our  schools 
of  the  study  of  nature.  The  child  who  has  been  made 
familiar  with  the  characteristics  of  animals,  birds,  flowers, 
and  trees,  and  can  name  them  on  sight,  finds  that  the 
great  earth  is  teeming  with  interesting  neighbors  of  man, 
whose  acquaintance  is  an  ever-present  joy.  He  walks 
thereafter  in  a  more  beautiful,  broader,  and  more  invit- 
ing land  than  that  traveled  by  his  untutored  fellows. 

With  precisely  the  same  end  in  view,  pupils  should 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  their  locality.  To 
the  casual  observer,  the  record  of  an  obscure  American 
town  may  seem  to  furnish  few  circumstances  worthy  of 
remembrance.  But  a  careful  study  of  its  annals  will 
invariably  reveal  some  facts  and  incidents  well  calcu- 
lated to  arouse  the  interest,  if  not  the  enthusiasm,  of 
every  intelligent  member  of  the  community. 

The  most  obvious  and  simple  query  concerning  any 
town  is,  why  is  it  situated  exactly  where  it  is  ?  Merely  to 
answer  this  often  necessitates  much  research,  which  is 
quite  apt  to  yield  interesting  geographical,  topographical, 


THE   LOCAL  HISTORY   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  85 

and  historical  facts.  In  the  United  States,  it  quite  fre- 
quently leads  the  inquirer  back  to  the  aboriginal  village 
which  first  occupied  the  site ;  this  opens  the  field  of  local 
Indian  archaeology,  which  is  sure  to  attract  a  con- 
siderable group  of  students. 

A  topic  abounding  in  picturesque  possibilities  is  the 
account  of  the  coming  of  the  first  white  people  thither  — 
their  reason  for,  and  the  manner  of  their  coming ;  their 
early  experiences  at  this  place,  and  what  induced  them  to 
stay ;  and  generally,  what  manner  of  folk  they  were. 

The  study  then  turns  on  the  social  and  civic  institu- 
tions established  here  by  these  pioneer  men  and  women  — 
the  first  school  and  its  teachers,  the  first  church  and  its 
pastors  and  congregation,  the  first  post  office  and  post- 
master, the  first  pubHc  meeting  place,  the  first  j)ublic 
officials  chosen,  and  the  first  doctors  and  lawyers;  the 
creation  of  clubs,  societies,  fraternal  organizations;  the 
beginnings  of  commercial  and  industrial  estabhshments 
—  stores,  mills,  and  factories ;  the  building  of  pubHc 
roads,  many  of  them  doubtless  following  the  course  of 
earlier  Indian  trails  of  considerable  antiquity;  the  con- 
struction of  bridges,  the  opening  of  stage  routes  and 
other  transportation  facilities;  the  coming  of  steam- 
boats and  railroads. 

The  subsequent  history  of  the  town  can  now  logically 
and  interestingly  be  traced  —  the  later  development 
of  the  social  and  political  institutions  planted  by  the 
pioneers ;  the  growth  of  manufacturing  and  commercial 
interests;  the  inauguration  of  such  pubhc  necessities 


86  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

and  conveniences  as  police,  fire  department,  waterworks 
and  sewerage  system,  gas  and  electricity,  street  cars, 
hospitals,  and  organized  charities;  the  beginnings  of 
humane  societies,  the  chamber  of  commerce,  and  other 
private  organizations  for  the  pubHc  welfare  —  in  short, 
a  study  of  every  agency  that  has  affected  the  develop- 
ment of  civilization  in  this  community.  Not  least  of 
these  will  be  found  the  immigration  thither  of  colonists 
from  Europe,  who  should  always  be  studied,  at  least 
cursorily,  in  connection  with  their  status  in  Europe  — 
the  economic,  social,  political,  or  religious  reasons  that 
induced  them  to  settle  in  the  New  World,  and  what 
qualities  they  have  brought  with  them  to  enrich  and 
broaden  American  life.  With  all  this,  there  should  be 
a  thoughtful  summarizing  of  reasons  why  the  town  grew 
and  is  likely  to  grow  —  the  geographical,  topographical, 
and  historical  considerations  underlying  this  growth. 

There  must  be  some  study,  also,  of  the  careers  of  those 
men  and  women  who  in  different  fields  have  conspicu- 
ously assisted  in  this  forward  movement;  and  of  the 
leading  events  otherwise  affecting  the  town's  history  — 
fires,  floods,  participations  in  wars,  industrial  dis- 
turbances, navigation  improvements,  new  railroads, 
"  booms,"  etc.  Topics  such  as  these  will  readily  suggest 
themselves  to  the  intelligent  teacher. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  smallest  and  apparently 
the  least  interesting  of  American  communities  presents 
abundant  and  significant  problems  for  the  local  his- 
torian, economist,  sociologist,  or  other  student  of  hfe 


THE   LOCAL  HISTORY    OF   THE   COMMUNITY  87 

and  manners ;  and  woven  in  and  around  these  problems 
will  surely  be  discovered  many  a  life  story  to  illumine 
the  tale  with  grace  and  romance.  The  child  who  has 
been  made  familiar  with  this  local  history  will  feel  that 
the  traditions  and  annals  of  his  birthplace  are  a  rich 
heritage  that  he  shares  in  common  with  every  man, 
woman,  and  child  in  his  neighborhood.  He  will  have 
acquired  an  understanding  of  the  varied  national  and  ra- 
cial elements  that  necessarily  go  to  make  up  his  commu- 
nity, and  what  each  has  contributed  to  the  common  good. 
He  will  have  been  taught  to  take  a  broader  view  of  the 
position  held  by  his  home  town  in  the  state  and  in  the 
nation ;  he  will  appreciate  what  it  stands  for  and  should 
stand  for.  With  such  qualifications,  he  will  surely 
become  a  more  useful,  more  loyal  citizen  than  will  the 
lad  to  whom  the  place  is  an  unmeaning  checkerboard 
collection  of  streets,  sidewalks,  and  houses. 

R.  G.  T. 

SURVEY  OF   THE  LOCAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  COMMUNITY 

Was  your  region  occupied  by  Indians  before  the  arrival  hither 
of  white  men  ?  If  so,  what  tribe  ?  Tell  what  you  know  of  them ; 
indicate  on  a  map  what  extent  of  territory  they  hunted  over. 
Did  they  have  a  village  in  this  region  ?  Give  its  name,  and  the 
names  of  any  of  its  chiefs  of  whom  you  have  read  or  heard.  Did 
you  ever  see  a  member  of  this  tribe  ? 

Are  there  any  remaining  evidences  of  Indian  occupation  here  — 
old  trails,  implements,  mounds,  graves,  planting  fields,  shell  heaps 
markings  on  rocks,  etc.? 

Who  was  the  first  white  man  to  reach  this  spot,  so  far  as  you 
know  ?    Why  did  he  come  here  —  what  was  he  doing ;   how  and 


88  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

along  what  route  did  he  come ;  how  long  did  he  stay  ?  If  an 
explorer,  missionary,  hunter,  fisherman,  lumberman  or  the  Hke, 
what  was  his  story  ?  Did  his  coming  lead  to  anything  permanent 
—  the  planting  of  an  Indian  mission,  a  fur-trade  post,  a  fishing 
station,  or  a  lumber  camp?  What  is  the  story  of  the  first  per- 
manent settlement  ? 

When  the  first  pioneer  is  joined  by  others  of  his  race,  the  com- 
munity may  be  considered  as  established.  What  was  the  life  of 
these  pioneers  —  their  occupations,  methods  of  making  a  living, 
grinding  grains,  marketing  crops,  defending  themselves  from  the 
Indians,  hardships,  amusements,  etc. 

What  can  you  find  out  about  the  founding  of  schools,  churches, 
and  the  other  social,  political,  commercial,  and  industrial  in- 
stitutions of  this  early  community  ?  Are  there  any  pioneers  left  ? 
Are  you  keeping  their  stories  ? 

If  your  community  is  in  a  region  that  at  some  time  in  its  history 
has  been  held  by  some  other  power  —  Great  Britain,  France, 
Spain,  Holland,  Sweden,  or  Russia  —  this  fact  will  give  rise  to 
many  questions :  How  and  why  did  it  become  a  colony  of  that 
nation?  How  and  why  did  it  fall  into  American  hands?  In 
some  localities,  facts  of  romantic  interest  will  be  developed  by  such 
queries. 

Has  your  community  ever  suffered  great  disasters  —  as  by 
storm,  flood,  earthquake,  or  fire  ?  Has  it  ever  been  the  scene  of 
a  battle  ?  If  not  itself  the  actual  scene  of  war,  has  it  sent  repre- 
sentatives to  fight  battles  elsewhere  ?  Are  you  using  these  veterans 
of  the  wars  in  any  educational  way  ?  The  interview  is  here,  also, 
a  useful  method  of  awakening  interest. 

Has  your  community  ever  taken  part  in,  or  been  the  scene  of  any 
events  that  are  great  in  the  history  of  the  nation  or  state  —  such 
as  expositions,  historical  celebrations  and  conventions  or  other 
great  meetings?  What  great  public  works  are  in  or  near  your 
town  —  irrigation  dams,  levees,  harbor  improvements,  or  canals  ? 
Does  the  town  manufacture  articles  that  have  a  wide  sale,  or  ship 


THE    LOCAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  89 

produce  that  is  in  demand  elsewhere  ?  What  stretch  of  country 
does  your  town's  railways  traverse  ? 

What  nationalities,  other  than  native  Americans,  are  represented 
in  your  community  population  ?  When  did  these  foreigners  come  ? 
What  were  the  causes  of  their  emigration  —  religious,  political, 
or  economic?  In  what  manner  and  by  what  routes  (here  give 
details)  did  they  come  to  this  town  from  the  Old  World  ?  What 
customs  did  they  bring  with  them,  that  they  still  retain?  Are 
they  still  supporting  churches,  schools,  and  newspapers  in  their 
native  language,  and  keeping  Old  World  holidays?  In  what 
manner  have  they  contributed  to  civiUzation  in  the  New  World  ? 
Are  they  better  off  in  America  than  they  were  in  their  old  homes  ? 

Have  any  of  your  townsmen  or  townswomen  gained  a  state-wide 
or  still  greater  reputation  —  as  authors,  artists,  singers,  actors, 
orators,  soldiers  or  sailors,  statesmen,  financiers,  inventors,  or 
captains  of  industry  ?  Has  your  town  any  historic  sites,  famous 
buildings,  monuments,  parks,  drives,  neighborhood  scenery,  or 
other  attractions  for  visitors  ? 

What  have  been  the  chief  causes  of  your  town's  growth  ?  Is  its 
geographical  situation  such  as  to  give  hope  for  continued  growth  ? 
Is  it  an  agricultural,  commercial,  industrial,  or  educational  town 
—  or  all  of  these  ?  What  part  have  railroads,  canals,  or  steamboat 
lines,  or  ordinary  public  highways,  played  in  the  success  of  the 
town  ?  If  the  town  has  decreased  in  population  what  causes  have 
led  thereto  ? 

If  the  community  is  a  small  village,  these  and  like  questions  will 
be  helpful.  Why  do  people  live  in  this  place  ?  How  many  pro- 
fessions, trades,  and  varieties  of  business  are  represented  ?  Why 
has  the  village  remained  small?  What  opportunities  are  there 
for  further  growth  ? 

What  uses  are  you  making  of  these  things  in  the  education  of 
the  boys  and  girls  of  the  community  ?  j 


90  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  AND   SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY 

The  student  should  inform  himself  as  to  what  books,  pamphlets, 
or  series  of  newspaper  articles  have  been  published  bearing  on  the 
history  and  description  of  the  region.  In  some  favored  locaHties 
there  is  abundant  material  of  this  sort ;  but  generally,  there  is  httle 
or  none.  But  in  either  case,  any  inteUigent  study  should  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  resolve  itself  into  a  matter  of  original  research  on 
the  part  of  the  student. 

He  should,  therefore,  read  what  some  of  the  masters  of  his- 
torical research  have  to  suggest  as  to  means  and  methods.  In 
the  first  two  chapters  of  Vol.  I  of  Hart's  American  History  told 
by  Contemporaries  (New  York)  there  is  a  discussion  of  historical 
sources  and  their  uses,  which  will  be  found  helpful.  Channing 
and  Hart's  Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History  (Boston)  con- 
tains many  suggestions,  and  a  bibliography  guiding  the  reader 
to  more  extended  discussions  of  the  subject.  Small  and  Vincent's 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Society  is  also  an  admirable  manual. 
In  the  last  named  work,  there  is  told  (Book  II)  in  brief  compass, 
the  story  of  the  development  of  an  anonymous  Western  community 
(the  reference  is  to  Topeka,  Kans.),  from  the  arrival  of  the  first 
"Prairie  schooner"  to  the  final  evolution  of  the  settlement  into 
a  flourishing  city.  A  reading  of  this  sketch  will  be  instructive  to 
students  of  local  history  anywhere  in  the  United  States,  but  es- 
pecially in  the  Middle  West  and  the  trans-Mississippi  country. 

The  following  Bulletins  of  Information  issued  by  the  Wisconsin 
State  Historical  Society,  Madison,  Wis.,  may  be  obtained  on  ap- 
plication (price  lo  cents  each) :  Nos.  4,  12  and  54,  "Suggestions 
to  Local  Historians  and  Local  History  Societies";  No.  9,  "How 
Local  History  Material  should  be  Preserved  in  Libraries";  No. 
25,  "Gathering  of  Local  History  Material  by  Public  Libraries'^; 
No.  37,  "The  Local  History  Story  Hour,  in  PubHc  Libraries." 

Teachers  should  cooperate  with  the  public  library,  and  en- 
courage the  persistent  and  permanent  collection  thereby  of  all 


THE   LOCAL   HISTORY   OF   THE    COMMUNITY  9 1 

manner  of  local  history  material,  no  matter  how  apparently 
ephemeral.  This  material  consists  not  only  of  books,  pamphlets, 
and  leaflets  avowedly  historical,  but  reports  of  local  governmental 
bodies  and  pubHc  and  private  institutions  (including  pubHcations 
of  churches,  schools,  clubs,  etc.)  —  particularly  newspaper  files, 
which  last  are  of  prime  importance  in  original  historical  research. 

In  connection  with  the  public  library,  there  should  be  instituted 
a  local  historical  museum  of  well-selected  survivals  of  the  past  — 
Indian  implements  and  dress,  pioneer  relics  of  every  sort,  and 
articles  expecially  illustrative  of  events  in  the  town's  history. 

Products  of  the  town  or  vicinity  should,  when  practicable, 
be  exhibited.  There  should  also  be  a  collection  of  well-mounted 
specimens  of  the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  neighborhood,  and  care- 
fully selected  local  geological  specimens.  Care  should  be  taken, 
however,  not  to  overload  the  museum  with  trash.  The  Wiscon- 
sin State  Historical  Society's  Bulletin  No.  43,  "Local  Public 
Museimis,"  will  be  helpful  by  way  of  suggestions. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE   POLITICAL  LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY 

In  the  old  common  life  of  the  people,  in  the  days  when 
the  common  law  was  growing  up,  when  industry  was 
simple,  and  social  organization  was  still  primitive,  all 
the  people  of  the  community  knew  each  other  fairly  well 
and  what  each  member  of  the  commtmity  did  was  fairly 
common  knowledge.  During  these  primitive  centuries 
there  was  a  division  of  labor  in  such  way  that  certain 
members  of  the  community  had  the  task  of  carrying  on 
the  poHtical  life  and  the  control  of  the  social  order.  It 
was  not  supposed  to  be  the  right  of  the  people  whose 
labor  was  agriculture  to  have  any  knowledge  of,  or  part 
in,  the  political  life.  Theirs  not  to  reason  why  any- 
thing was  done.  It  was  theirs  but  to  obey  the  ruling 
powers. 

But  in  the  struggle  towards  democracy  the  average 
individual  has  been  slowly  emerging  into  a  state  of  mind 
which  makes  him  aware  that  he  must  have  some  actual 
social  knowledge  of  the  elements  that  make  up  the 
political  life  of  his  community,  his  state,  and  his  nation. 
Not  only  for  his  own  salvation,  but  for  the  salvation  of 
the  community,  the  citizen  of  a  democracy  must  know 
what  is  going  on  in  his  community.  He  is  not  prying 
into  other  people's  business  when  he  attempts  to  find 

92 


THE   POLITICAL   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  93 

out  the  forces  that  control  the  political  activities  of  the 
community.  It  is  his  own  business,  and  he  has  not  only 
a  right  to  know,  but  the  only  hope  of  democracy  is 
that  he  shall  know.  A  study  of  the  poHtical  Hfe  of  the 
community  may  very  well  be  made  along  the  following 
lines  of  inquiry  : 

1.  The  Basis  of  the  Government.  —  Questions  as  to 
the  sources  of  authority  in  government  are  not  out  of 
place.  The  *'  divine  right  of  kings  "  has  probably  passed 
away  in  America.  But  the  great  problem  of  the  present, 
so  far  as  the  poHtical  Hfe  is  concerned,  is  as  to  whether  we 
shall  have  a  real  democracy,  with  the  sources  of  power 
in  the  people  themselves,  or  a  partial  democracy  with 
nominal  power  in  the  hands  of  the  people  but  the  real 
power  in  the  hands  of  some  special  class  or  interest,  and 
the  whole  machinery  of  government  manipulated  by 
insidious  influences. 

2.  Reasons  for  Government.  —  Government  exists 
for  the  sake  of  providing  order,  freedom,  individual  rights, 
and  education.  But  it  also  exists  for  the  sake  of  estab- 
lishing responsibiHty.  Government  has  leaned  always 
in  the  past  upon  the  general  theory  that  that  was  the 
best  government  which  governed  least.  The  individual 
and  his  rights,  therefore,  have  suffered  very  frequently, 
while  those  influences  which  tend  to  protect  property 
rights  have  ever  been  duly  emphasized.  Property  has 
its  rights,  but  property  has  also  its  duties.  And  the  fun- 
damental reasons  for  government  are  to  be  found  not 
primarily  in   the  protection  of  property,   but  in   the 


94  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

establishment  of  such  a  social  order  as  shall  give  pro- 
gressive direction  to  the  development  of  moral  person- 
ality. 

3.  Support  of  Government.  —  Much  of  our  govern- 
ment in  the  past  and  even  to-day  seems  to  have  gone 
upon  the  general  assumption  that  since  the  weak  need 
an  undue  proportion  of  the  protection  of  government 
they  should  pay  an  undue  proportion  of  the  support  of 
the  government,  but  there  are  two  phases  of  the  question 
of  the  support  of  government : 

First  —  The  financial  support.  —  Under  the  financial 
phase  we  come  face  to  face  with  the  questions  of  equitable 
distribution  of  taxation ;  corrupt  influences  which  wield 
government  in  antisocial  directions;  wasteful  expendi- 
tures of  public  money;  and  systems  of  pubUc  policy 
which  alienate  the  sympathies  of  the  progressive  man 
and  woman  and  make  even  the  most  hearty  patriot  doubt 
the  right  of  the  state  to  levy  taxes.  Undoubtedly  a 
fundamental  problem  in  the  education  of  the  citizens  of 
our  times  is  this  necessity  of  an  education  in  the  direc- 
tion of  hearty  cooperation  in  the  financial  support  of 
government.     But  this  brings  us  to  the  other  phase. 

Second  —  The  moral  support.  —  Here  we  have  such 
attitudes  toward  government  as  are  expressed  by  the  ex- 
treme theories  of  individualism  on  the  one  hand,  which 
denies  the  necessity  of  all  forms  of  government;  and 
that  extreme  socialism  on  the  other  hand,  which  makes 
government  synonymous  with  the  cooperative  will  of  the 
people.     In  these  democratic  times  government  must 


THE   POLITICAL   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMXJNITY  95 

be  more  and  more  the  actual  expression  of  the  will  of  the 
people  if  it  is  to  have  the  moral  support  of  the  people. 
Citizenship  in  government  means,  in  these  days,  funda- 
mentally, simply  a  complete  moral  personality.  For 
this  reason  theoretical  individualism  and  theoretical 
socialism  are  very  close  together. 

4.  The  Machinery  of  Government.  —  The  success  of 
government  in  a  democratic  society  depends  upon  in- 
dividual interests  and  duties.  Government  exists  for 
the  organization  of  a  social  order  which  shall  make  pos- 
sible complete  moral  personal  development.  The  gov- 
ernment will,  therefore,  express  certain  great  moral 
attitudes,  and  there  will  be  involved  in  the  study  of 
government  great  questions  of  economics  and  politics 
and  these  will  help  to  determine  the  character  of  the 
machinery  of  government. 

There  will  always  be  two  elemental  types  of  political 
society.  One  stands  for  the  conservatism  of  the  past 
and  the  sufficiency  of  the  present.  The  other  stands 
for  the  worth  of  the  past  and  the  present  but  the  greater 
worth  of  the  future.  The  one  is  conservative,  —  if 
not  reactionary,  —  the  other  progressive,  if  not  radical. 
And  between  these  two,  public  opinion  will  play  back 
and  forth,  and  under  normal  and  healthy  social  life 
progress  will  be  made.  But  democracy  needs  a  more 
adequate  form  of  machinery  for  the  organization  of  its 
pubhc  opinion  so  that  it  can  overcome  the  mere  satisfac- 
tion of  the  conservative  and  hold  in  check  the  mere 
radicalism  of  the  progressive. 


96  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

Political  society  is  just  now  in  the  throes  of  working 
out  a  more  complete  system  for  voicing  public  opinion. 
Political  conventions  do  not  suffice,  for  men  have  learned 
too  well  the  game  of  politics,  and  conventions  serve  Httle 
but  as  occasions  for  the  exploitation  of  corrupt  measures. 
PubKc  assemblies  in  any  large  measure  are  impossible 
in  a  nation  that  numbers  its  population  by  the  millions. 
But  public  assemblies  are  still  possible  and  utterly  es- 
sential in  the  local  communities.  The  development  of 
the  general  sentiment  towards  an  adequate  primary 
system  of  nominations  and  secret  elections  is  one  of  the 
hopeful  tendencies  of  the  times.  But  government  in  a 
democracy  will  not  have  completely  realized  its  freedom 
and  responsibility  until  the  people  shall  have  developed 
adequate  means  of  publicity  of  all  that  goes  to  make  up 
the  political  currents  of  the  times.  The  machinery  of 
government  must  become  part  of  the  possession  of  every 
individual  if  government  is  to  be  completely  demo- 
cratic. 

5.  Units  of  Government.  —  One  of  the  extreme  diffi- 
culties in  connection  with  our  democratic  development 
is  the  number  of  governmental  units  within  which 
each  one  of  us  lives.  There  are  local  units,  state 
units,  national  units,  and  international  relations  that 
each  of  us  must  sustain  in  some  measure.  Among  the 
local  units  are  such  as  school  districts,  road  districts, 
township  organizations,  village,  town,  or  city  corpora- 
tions, and  the  organization  everywhere  of  counties  as 
political  units.    In  each  of  these  units,  local  or  general, 


THE   POLITICAL   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  97 

there  are  a  number  of  officeholders,  each  with  the  ma- 
chinery of  office,  and  each  depending  upon  the  public 
majority  for  support,  in  every  case.  If  democracy  is 
to  work  out  its  best  results  there  must  be  public  control 
and  criticism  of  the  activities  of  officeholders.  There 
must  be  public  regulation  of  their  duties  and  their  ex- 
penditures of  public  money.  And  there  must  be  an  ac- 
counting to  the  public  of  the  ways  in  which  they  have 
used  their  responsibility. 

6.  The  Franchise.  —  The  actual  participators  in 
government  are  those  holding  the  right  to  vote.  Here 
democracy  faces  its  severest  task.  By  its  own  theory, 
manhood  and  womanhood  suffrage  is  the  only  logical 
possibility  and  the  fixing  of  an  age  at  which  the  child 
is  admitted  to  the  franchise  is  a  purely  arbitrary  affair. 
But  the  franchise  is  not  only  a  right  of  the  normal 
individual  in  a  democracy ;  it  becomes  also  the  duty  of 
the  individual  to  exercise  that  right  and  responsibility 
by  taking  his  part  of  the  work  of  government  and  ac- 
cepting his  share  of  the  time  and  the  trouble  and  the 
difficulties  which  come  upon  a  people  trying  to  govern 
themselves. 

It  is  claimed  by  some  that  the  right  of  franchise 
should  be  limited;  that  it  is  granted  to  the  individual 
by  the  state ;  and  that  the  state  should  exercise  a  certain 
fundamental  control  over  the  right  of  franchise.  It  is 
doubtless  true  that  there  are  certain  limitations  which 
may  logically  be  put  upon  the  franchise,  even  in  a  de- 
mocracy; but  some  of  these  limitations  and  controls 


gS  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

which  are  ordinarily  proposed  are  fundamentally  undem- 
ocratic and  are  remnants  of  predemocratic  ages. 

7.  Branches  of  Government  in  Relation  to  Community 
Life.  —  Conventionally,  we  divide  our  governmental 
activities  into  three  groups :  the  legislative,  the  interpre- 
tative, and  the  administrative.  The  legislative  branch 
is,  in  large  measure,  responsible  to  the  pubHc  will  and  is 
coming,  more  and  more,  to  be  merely  the  responsive 
agent  of  that  public  will  in  its  progressive  development 
of  rules  and  laws  of  social  action.  The  administrative 
branch  is  perhaps  still  more  immediately  responsive  to 
the  public  will  and  makes  itself  active  in  the  control 
of  political  poHcies  just  in  so  far  as  it  does  express  and 
execute  the  public  will.  Present  tendencies,  both  in 
theory  and  in  practice,  indicate  the  eventual  merging 
of  legislative  and  administrative  functions  in  some  form 
of  "  commission."  The  interpretative  branch  of  our 
government,  local,  state,  or  national,  —  that  branch 
which  we  call  the  judiciary, — is  still  pretty  largely  unre- 
lated to  the  common  currents  of  social  activity  and  un- 
responsive to  the  progressive  demands  of  the  times, 
claiming  to  be  merely  the  interpreters  of  the  laws  as 
they  find  them.  Most  judges,  trained  as  they  are  to 
revere  precedent,  find  it  very  possible  to  interpret  the 
laws  in  the  narrower  and  more  conservative  sense  of 
the  words  and  meanings  rather  than  in  the  larger  and 
more  progressively  social  sense. 

All  about  the  administration  of  government  there  are 
insidious  forces  that  seek  to  control  the  government  of 


THE   POLITICAL   LIFE    OF   THE    COMMUNITY  99 

the  whole  people  in  the  interests  of  some  fraction  of  the 
people.  From  the  standpoint  of  democracy,  this  is 
just  as  disastrous  when  attempted  by  so-called  progres- 
sive elements  as  when  done  by  reactionary  interests. 
The  only  proper  control  of  the  branches  of  government  is 
control  by  the  complete  public  opinion  and  the  social 
will.  And  it  is  certain  that  gradually  government,  in 
all  its  three  branches,  will  become  more  and  more  the 
instrument  for  the  securing,  the  carrying  out  along 
political  lines,  of  the  social  will. 

8.  The  General  Spirit  of  Government.  —  Democracy 
depends  for  its  success  and  its  progress  upon  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  people.  That  government  will,  therefore, 
be  most  democratic  and  that  democracy  most  progressive, 
where  the  most  progressive  educational  agencies  and 
forces  are  at  work. 

Even  in  the  midst  of  our  democracy  the  prejudices  of 
predemocratic  ages  still  survive,  and  though  American 
democracy  has  for  the  most  part  developed  on  a  general 
manhood  suffrage  basis,  there  is  definite  opposition  to 
the  right  of  the  average  individual  to  share  in  the  struc- 
ture of  government;  and  this  expresses  itself  in  the 
common  opposition  to  woman  suffrage. 

One  of  the  maxims  early  developed  in  the  history  of 
American  democracy  was :  "  To  the  victors  belong  the 
spoils,"  and  for  a  half  century  this  was  the  current  prac- 
tice everywhere.  The  general  belief  that  "  public  office 
is  a  public  trust,"  or  that  public  officers  should  be 
honest  servants  has  developed  in  the  last  few  decades. 


lOO  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Democracy  still  faces  a  long,  hard,  uphill  pull  in 
the  direction  of  securing  complete  efficiency  in  its  civil 
service. 

Locally,  in  every  community  the  real  democratic  prob- 
lem is  that  of  securing  independent  thinking  along  po- 
litical lines  by  every  individual.  Thus  constantly  the 
local  community  is  at  the  mercy  of  the  political  boss, 
who  usually  has  some  more  or  less  corrupt  alliance  with 
insidious  financial  elements  and  manipulates  the  polit- 
ical hfe  of  his  community  so  that  these  financial  interests 
flow  constantly  in  his  direction. 

Among  the  definite  efforts  that  have  been  made  by 
the  schools  for  a  number  of  years  is  that  of  teaching  the 
duty  of  citizenship  —  education  for  participation  in 
government.  This  is  doubtless  one  of  the  great  needs 
of  our  American  communities.  But  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  is  a  need  that  can  be  met  successfully  by  the 
school's  work  alone.  Certainly  it  cannot  be  met  by 
teaching  boys  and  girls  the  old  formal  school  civics. 

Among  the  striking  and  hopeful  phenomena  of  our  day 
is  the  growth  of  the  conciousness  of  the  possibihty  of 
governmental  cooperation  along  many  lines.  Munici- 
paHties,  states,  and  nations  are  doing  great  construc- 
tive tasks  which  formerly  were  thought  to  be  impossible 
save  by,  and  upon,  the  basis  of  individual  initiative. 
Doubtless  this  is  simply  a  promise  of  the  day  when 
very  much  of  the  public  service  work  of  the  world  will 
be  done  by  the  whole  people  through  their  governmental 
agencies. 


THE   POLITICAL   LIFE^pF;'.tIiE  t^^M3^.C7Nit'5;  '    Vg^OI 

But  in  the  midst  of  our  growing  democracy  there  are 
still  to  be  found  forces  and  elements  that  are  inimical. 
These  are  all  of  the  anti-social  kind.  They  are  to  be 
found  in  the  local  community  everywhere  and  they  run 
through  all  our  common  life.  They  are  the  remnants 
of  the  social  past  which  expected  nothing  of  the  ordinary 
individual  but  unthinking  obedience.  To-day,  democracy 
is  demanding  of  all  citizens  thoughtful,  constructive 
obedience,  and  just  as  thoughtful,  constructive  criti- 
cism. Simple  obedience,  simple  habit,  simple  thought- 
lessness, simple  ignorance,  —  these  are  all  fundamental 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  democracy. 

The  development  of  an  education  that  shall  base  itself 
upon  the  native  resources  of  the  child  and  the  commu- 
nity ;  the  growth  of  a  public  doctrine  that  the  only  demo- 
cratic good  is  a  good  that  is  contributed  by  all  the  people 
and  is  possessed  by  all  the  people ;  and  the  development 
of  that  fundamental  constructive  social  intelligence 
which  shall  no  longer  worship  the  mere  past,  which  re- 
fuses to  be  the  victim  of  old  prejudices  and  habits,  and 
which  bravely  faces  the  future,  believing  in  itself ;  these 
are  some  of  the  fundamental  essentials  to  the  continuous 
growth  of  our  social  institutions.  Without  this  contin- 
uous growth  and  progress  democracy  is  impossible.  In 
the  life  of  the  local  community  is  to  be  found  the  place 
where  democracy  grows  or  where  it  fails.  In  the  heart  of 
the  common  individual  the  ultimate  test  of  democracy 
will  be  made.  But  it  is  certain  that  if  America  cannot 
develop  that  ever  enlarging  democratic  life,  then  some 


lO?;,  ;  ;y<  \, '.  {   ;.EWCAT;ibNAt   RESOURCES 

other  nation,  some  other  race,  will  take  up  the  task  and 
America  will  become  a  chapter  in  ancient  history. 

J.  K.  H. 

SURVEY  OF  THE  POLITICAL  LIFE   OF  THE   COMMUNITY 

1.  What  are  the  political  parties,  or  interests,  or  factions  of 
the  community?  What  are  the  cross-currents  and  under-cur- 
rents  of  political  affiliation  and  activity?  What  is  the  real  pro- 
gram of  each  ?  What  are  the  sources  of  revenue  of  each  interest  ? 
What  are  the  bonds,  or  "hopes"  that  control  each  interest  or 
faction  ?  How  much  of  this  political  activity  is  real  and  patriotic, 
and  how  much  of  it  is  bogus  ? 

2.  What  are  the  financial  interests  and  affiliations  of  the  com- 
munity? Who  are  the  political  representatives  of  these  various 
financial  interests?  What  is  the  actual  object  of  each  of  these 
interests  ?  Who  are  the  real  persons  behind  each  of  them  ?  Are 
they  local,  or  are  they  representatives  of  interests  from  a  distance  ? 
What  are  the  various  currents  and  cross-currents  of  these  financial 
interests,  corporations,  and  affiliations  ? 

3.  What  are  the  attitudes  of  the  people  in  general  toward  the 
payment  of  taxes  ?  Are  public  moneys  being  squandered  or  wisely 
spent  ?  Has  the  community  an  actual  financial  program  looking 
ahead  for  a  number  of  years?  Who  controls  this  program  and 
the  budget  ?  Are  the  larger  financial  interests  of  the  community, 
corporate  or  personal,  paying  their  due  shares  of  the  taxes  ?  Are 
any  proposals  offered  toward  reforms  in  the  taxation  systems? 
Can  the  system  of  taxes  be  controlled  locally,  or  is  it  a  state  affair  ? 
What  are  the  various  rates  for  the  varied  purposes,  local  and  state  ? 
Do  the  people  know  what  is  becoming  of  the  public  moneys  ? 
Has  the  community  any  means  of  checking  up  the  public  officials  ? 

4.  What  are  the  relationships  of  the  peace  officers  to  the  com- 
munity ?  Are  they  honest  and  efficient  ?  Is  the  policing  system 
of    the    community    satisfactory?    Are    antisocial    individuals 


THE   POLITICAL   LIFE   OF    THE   COMMUNITY  103 

handled  in  a  fair  and  eflfective  manner  ?    Is  justice  being  done  to 
all  classes  alike  ? 

5.  Is  there  any  sense  of  class  distinctions  in  the  community? 
Is  the  community  being  exploited  in  any  way  so  as  to  array  class 
against  class?  Are  the  political  divisions  of  the  community  fair 
and  above  reproach,  or  are  they  corrupt  and  insidious  ?  Is  there 
popular  discontent  in  the  community,  or  is  there  fundamental 
cooperation  of  all  citizens  looking  toward  steady  community 
progress?  Are  destructive  economic  forces  at  work  in  the  com- 
munity? Is  there  a  measurable  degree  of  justice  in  the  distri- 
bution of  the  wealth  of  the  community  ? 

6.  What  is  the  standing  of  the  courts  in  the  community  ?  Are 
the  judicial  officers  honest,  fair,  socially  intelligent,  pubHc  spirited, 
and  progressive,  or  are  they  mere  worshipers  of  legal  precedents  ? 
Are  there  any  insidious  political  or  financial  interests  that  con- 
trol the  administration  of  justice  by  the  courts  ?  Are  the  financial 
records  of  the  various  judges  known  to  the  people  ? 

7.  What  newspapers  and  other  organs  of  publicity  exist  in  the 
community?  Who  are  the  actual  owners  of  these  organs  of 
publicity  ?  What  are  the  relationships  between  the  various  papers 
of  differing  poHtical  views?  Are  the  editors  sincere  in  their 
opinions  or  are  the  editorials  paid  material?  What  are  the  re- 
lationships of  the  owners,  and  editors,  of  the  papers  to  the  financial 
interests  of  the  community  ?  Is  there  any  completely  free  organ 
of  publicity  in  the  community  ?  What  influence  have  the  papers 
in  the  conamunity  ?  Is  there  any  sort  of  corrupt  alUance  between 
the  newspapers  and  the  forces  of  political  and  financial  corruption 
in  the  community  ?  Is  there  a  poKtical  ring,  supported  by  some 
paper  ?  Is  there  a  political  boss  owning  a  paper  and  dominating 
publicity  ? 

8.  What  organizations,  or  masses,  of  corrupt  forces  are  to  be 
found  in  the  community?  Are  there  any  insidious  political 
"clubs"  making  common  cause  with  promoters  of  vice?  What 
are  the  political  affiliations  of  the  liquor  interests,  if  there  are  such 
interests  ? 


104  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

9.  What  are  the  poHtical  affiliations  of  the  leaders  of  labor  in 
the  community?  Are  there  any  professional  labor-traitors,  or 
"go-betweens,"  in  the  community?  Are  the  laboring  people 
intelligent  in  their  political  sympathies,  or  purely  traditional? 
Is  there  any  tendency  to  differentiate  poHtically  along  labor 
lines  ?  What  is  the  strength  of  Socialism  in  the  community  ?  Is 
the  laboring  man  a  socialist  ? 

10.  What  is  the  general  spirit  of  the  community,  democratic 
or  reactionary  ?  Are  there  any  really  sincere  democratic  forces 
at  work  in  the  community?  Are  the  public  schools  democratic 
in  their  courses  of  study,  in  their  school  methods,  and  in  the  product 
which  they  are  turning  out  ?  If  not,  why  not  ?  Are  the  churches 
democratic  in  their  attitudes,  in  their  messages,  and  in  their 
services  ?    If  not,  why  not  ? 

11.  Are  there  any  institutions  of  higher  learning  in  the  com- 
munity ?  If  so,  how  are  they  controlled :  by  the  needs  of  the  pres- 
ent, by  insidious  political  interests,  by  some  sort  of  "dead  hand'* 
out  of  the  past?  Are  they  free  to  teach  progressive  scientific 
and  social  truth?  Are  they  administered  in  the  service  of  the 
community,  or  as  private  property  of  the  trustees  or  regents  ? 

12.  What  are  the  various  reform  organizations  of  the  com- 
munity ?  What  are  their  affiliations,  their  programs,  their  sources 
of  revenue,  and  their  controlling  elements?  Are  any  of  them 
really  democratic? 

13.  Does  the  community  secure  to  all  men,  —  to  all  persons,  — 
the  opportunities  for  self -maintenance  ?  Is  the  community  seek- 
ing to  protect  the  workers  against  the  evils  and  dangers  of  their 
work  and  against  the  industrial  changes  that  come?  Is  there 
public  opinion  in  the  community,  and  force  in  the  law,  sufficient  to 
prevent  child  labor?  Does  the  community  attempt  to  prevent 
private  monopoly  of  natural  resources?  Does  the  community 
exercise  any  care  over  the  health,  the  foods,  the  amusements  of 
the  community  ?  Has  the  community  any  sense  of  responsibility 
for  the  common  welfare,  or  is  welfare  wholly  a  matter  of  individual 


THE   POLITICAL   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  10$ 

struggle?    To    what  extent    has    the    community  government 
become  the  cooperation  of  all  for  the  good  of  all  ? 

14.  What  is  being  done  for  the  actual  civic  education  of  the 
community?  Are  there  any  immigrant  peoples  in  the  com- 
munity? How  are  they  getting  their  impressions  of  American 
institutions?  Is  anything  being  done  to  enlist  the  native  social 
ideals  of  immigrant  peoples  in  behalf  of  American  institutions  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  OF  THIS  SUBJECT 

Dunn.     The  Community  and  the  Citizen. 
Hart.    Actual  Government. 
Smith.     The  Spirit  of  American  Government. 
Addams.     Democracy  and  Social  Ethics. 

Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Street. 
Hall.    Immigration. 
Steiner.    On  the  Trail  of  the  Immigrant. 
FoRMAN.     Advanced  Civics. 
Bryce.     American  Commonwealth. 
Roosevelt.    Essays  on  Practical  Politics. 
Roosevelt.     The  New  Nationalism. 
Bailey.     The  State  and  the  Farmer. 
Fairlie.    Local  Government. 
Hinsdale.    American  Government. 
Lloyd.     Wealth  against  Commonwealth. 
Wells.    Recent  Economic  Changes. 

Fawcett,  Henry.    State  Socialism  and  Nationalization  of  Land. 
George,  Henry.    Our  Land  and  Land  Policy.    (New  York,  1901 .) 
Wallace,  A.  R.    Land  Nationalization.    (London,  1883.) 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   OUTDOOR   BEAUTI- 
FICATION   IN  A   COMMUNITY 

Naturally,  all  outdoors  is  beautiful.  It  is  through 
so-called  civilization  that  this  beauty  is  marred  to  such 
an  extent  that  there  conies  in  time  a  movement  for  re- 
storing it. 

Think  of  the  landscape  that  meets  the  eye  in  any 
portion  of  North  America  not  sufficiently  inhabited  to 
form  a  community.  The  distant  hills  or  the  broad 
prairie ;  the  river  or  the  lake ;  the  island  or  the  valley ; 
the  clear  sky  or  the  sky  with  clouds ;  the  sweet  and  un- 
polluted air;  the  majestic  forest;  the  flower-decked 
meadow  —  all  these  are  on  the  land  as  man  gets  it  from 
its  Creator.  The  development  into  the  only  real  addi- 
tion of  value  —  that  through  productive  agriculture  — 
does  not  seriously  interfere  with  this  outdoor  beauty. 
The  tilled  field  is  sometimes  more  beautiful  than  the 
natural  meadow.  The  waving  corn  has  a  charm  all  its 
own.  Nothing  stirs  the  pulses  more  than  the  ripples 
of  the  breeze  over  vast  wheat  fields.  Productive  agri- 
culture sometimes  enhances,  and  seldom  decreases, 
natural  beauty. 

The  farm  buildings,  often,  as  they  ought  to  be  always, 

embowered  in  green,  with  the  garden  attached,  suggest 

io6 


OUTDOOR  BEAUTIFICATION   IN   A   COMMUNITY       107 

comfort  and  that  institution  most  characteristic  of 
America,  the  Christian  home. 

But  immediately  when  a  few  houses  are  built  at  a 
crossroads  there  begins  the  elimination  of  outdoor 
beauty  and  the  introduction  of  uneconomic,  unsanitary, 
unpleasant  ugliness.  Often  there  comes  to  be  a  tavern 
at  the  crossroads,  with  its  sometimes  filthy  surroundings. 
The  country  store  is  located  near  by,  and  a  good  many 
human  derehcts  adorn  its  vicinity,  while  tin  cans,  staring 
signs,  and  filth  of  all  sorts  gradually  encroach  on  what 
little  has  remained  of  natural  attractiveness. 

As  time  passes  and  population  increases,  houses  are 
added,  factories  come,  smoke  begins,  billboards  are 
introduced ;  a  dead  forest,  hung  with  wires,  replaces  the 
live  forest  which  may  have  been  on  the  land;  the  ill- 
considered,  ill-kept  street  is  lengthened  and  duplicated, 
and  that  American  abomination,  the  shameless,  unpa- 
triotic and  filthy  American  small  town,  is  developed. 

True,  in  this  town  some  people  come  to  live  who  care 
for  better  things.  These  plant  gardens.  They  insist 
that  trees  shall  be  set  in  the  streets.  Sometimes  they  go 
so  far  as  to  believe  that  the  schoolhouses  in  which  the 
children  are  educated  in  a  very  small  part  of  Hfe's  work 
shall  have  at  least  sanitary  and  decent,  if  not  attractive, 
surroundings.  The  general  aspect,  however,  of  the 
average  American  rural  and  village  community  is  pain- 
fully ugly,  sadly  unpleasant,  and  deeply  humihating. 

Thought  may  well  be  placed  upon  the  decrease  of 
actual  value  that  has  come  about  through  this  glorifica- 


Io8  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

tion  of  ugliness  under  the  silly  misconception  that  the 
man  who  destroys  beauty  is  "practical."  That  man  — 
and  there  are  many  of  him  —  forgets  always  that  he 
pays  more  money  for  everything  he  buys  if  it  attracts 
him  by  its  appearance.  If  he  is  shrewd  at  all,  he  comes 
to  know  that  the  things  he  sells  bring  him  more  money 
when  they  are  attractive  in  appearance.  He  is  a  long 
time,  however,  coming  to  realize  that  health  and  self- 
respect  are  promoted  by  community  attractiveness,  and 
he  has  not  as  yet  come  to  realize  at  all  that  the  essential 
virtue  of  patriotism,  upon  which  depends  the  security 
of  his  property,  is  promoted  only  by  that  love  of  country 
which  has  its  abiding  place  in  what  is  left  of  the  beauty 
of  the  country. 

What  I  have  been  writing  might  have  been  said  with 
much  more  strength  ten  years  ago.  There  has  been  a 
great  change,  and  it  is  the  beginning  of  a  greater  change. 
Scores,  indeed  hundreds,  of  American  communities 
desire  to  be  bettered.  Yet  in  that  blind  way  too  often 
characteristic  of  our  self-sufficient  Americanism,  they 
are  often  quite  disregardful  of  any  experience  save  their 
own,  so  that  in  attempting  to  make  our  own  better 
there  has  been  but  little  shrewd  consideration  of  the 
best  things  to  be  found  in  other  communities  and  in 
other  countries. 

Thus  it  has  come  about  in  very  many  cases  that  the 
desire  to  develop  outdoor  beautification  in  a  community 
has  led  to  the  doing  of  bad  work,  to  the  spending  of 
money  foolishly,  and  to  the  accompHshment  of  things 


OUTDOOR   BEAUTIFICATION   IN   A   COMMUNITY       IO9 

that  must  be  undone  if  the  final  result  is  to  be  satisfactory, 
efficient,  and  proper.  Yet  none  of  this  effort  is  really 
wasted,  for  through  it  we  are  learning  how  to  find  and 
appreciate  the  beautiful. 

Instances  might  be  cited  without  number  to  prove 
thfe  value  of  orderly  and  well-considered  outdoor  beauti- 
fication  in  communities.  It  would  be  much  harder  to 
find  instances  in  which  the  same  sort  of  beautification 
had  not  proved  profitable.  Indeed,  I  know  of  no  such 
instances,  and  I  do  not  believe  that  any  exist.  The  man 
who  has  a  farm  to  sell  finds  that  the  pleasant  surround- 
ings of  the  home  buildings  very  greatly  increase  its  value 
in  the  market.  Those  resident  on  a  street  in  which  there 
has  been  harmonious  action  toward  real  community 
service  in  the  introduction  of  beautification,  are  not 
disposed  by  reason  of  what  has  happened  to  take  less 
for  their  properties  on  an  occasion  of  sale.  The  town 
which  attracts  the  passing  or  incoming  traveler  by  its 
evident  desire  not  only  to  be  clean  but  to  be  beautiful, 
never  feels  that  the  expenditure  for  such  work  has  been 
in  vain. 

But  the  development  of  outdoor  beautification  in  the 
community  can  be,  by  taking  thought,  made  harmonious, 
relatively  inexpensive,  and  much  more  rapid.  It  is 
my  thought  to  hint  at  a  few  of  the  items  in  a  program  of 
wise  outdoor  beautification  which  may  serve  merely 
as  guideposts  toward  that  deeper  study  that  is  the  only 
sure  way  toward  the  best  result. 

To  begin  with,  the  first  fundamental  of  the  community 


no  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

is  its  highways.  These,  alas,  have  usually  evolved  from 
the  country  road,  and  the  country  road  has  seldom  been 
planned  thoughtfully.  Sometimes  it  is  possible  to 
amend  these  early  errors,  and  to  introduce  natural  and 
safe  ideals  in  altering  highways  or  streets. 

The  street  must  be  considered,  first,  last,  and  all  the 
time,  as  the  means  of  access  to  and  through  the  com- 
munity for  its  people  and  for  those  who  come  to  it  and 
who  live  along  its  borders.  It  ought,  therefore,  to  be 
so  designed  as  to  serve  well  this  primary  use,  but  not 
permitted  to  be  so  diverted  as  to  serve  at  all  predomi- 
nantly any  private  interests. 

There  exists  a  curious  misconception  with  respect  to 
the  purpose  of  a  highway.  Probably  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  miles  of  roads  in  the  United  States  to-day 
exist  as  if  vehicular  traffic  was  their  only  proper  purpose. 
Streets  in  cities  there  are  in  which  all  the  effort  has  been 
put  upon  paving,  at  great  expense,  the  widest  possible 
area  of  the  street  surface,  utterly  neglecting  the  comfort 
and  the  convenience  of  the  people  who  Hve  along  the 
street,  as  well  as  the  proper  means  of  transacting  such 
business  as  may  even  yet  be  done  on  foot !  That  is,  the 
highway  is  thought  of  as  a  vehicular  roadway  only, 
and  not  as  a  place  upon  which  to  live,  walk,  breathe,  and 
do  business. 

In  the  study  of  community  beautification,  therefore, 
thought  must  be  taken  as  to  the  purpose  of  the  street. 
If  it  is  designed  to  be  a  business  street,  then  there  can  be 
data  obtained  as  to  the  proper  width  of  trafiic  space. 


OUTDOOR  BEAUTIFICATION   IN  A   COMMUNITY       III 

London  Bridge  passes  some  two  thousand  teams  every 
hour  comfortably  on  thirty-two  feet  of  paved  surface. 
The  great  viaduct  within  a  few  rods  of  where  I  write 
handles  daily  the  diversions  and  the  transactions  of 
probably  thirty  thousand  people,  on  foot  and  in  divers 
vehicles.  It  has  twenty-eight  feet  of  roadway,  which  is 
seldom  crowded,  and  two  eight-foot  sidewalks,  which  are 
more  seldom  crowded.  Some  of  the  most  notable  high- 
ways in  the  country,  as,  for  instance,  Delaware  Avenue 
in  Buffalo,  have  barely  thirty  feet  of  traffic  space,  and 
not  over  five  or  six  feet  of  sidewalk  on  either  side  of  the 
street,  the  remainder  of  the  highway  being  very  properly 
given  up  to  those  important  adjuncts  to  comfort,  value, 
and  health  —  good  trees  and  good  grass. 

So,  therefore,  the  street  should  be  designed  for  its 
use  —  the  business  street  in  kind,  the  residence  street  in 
kind  —  and  there  should  be  no  senseless  adherence  to  a 
fixed  width  or  to  fixed  ideals,  regardless  of  the  use  of  the 
street. 

It  has  been  legally  held  in  many  American  states 
that  the  whole  of  the  property  between  lot  lines  on  any 
highway  dedicated  to  the  public  use  belongs  to  the  state 
and  is  in  trust  only  of  the  community  in  which  it  exists, 
for  the  use  of  the  people  of  that  state.  Therefore  every 
intrusion  of  private  structures  of  whatever  nature  on 
the  surface  of  the  street  is  essentially  illegal,  no  matter 
by  whom  this  intrusion  may  have  been  permitted. 
The  business  of  selling  electricity  for  use  through  tele- 
graphic or  telephonic  messages,  or  through  the  making 


112  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

of  lights  or  the  driving  of  machines,  is  private  business, 
and  there  is  essentially  no  reason  whatever  to  permit 
that  private  business  to  be  conducted  through  the  un- 
paid and  altogether  improper  use  of  the  public  streets. 
The  time  must  come  when  all  the  poles  and  all  the  wires 
will  disappear  from  the  streets.  If  they  are  permitted, 
as  at  present  is  the  case,  to  be  put  underground  on  the 
public  property,  it  ought  to  be  under  such  restrictions  as 
will  cause  the  public  service  corporations  to  reaHze  all 
the  time  that  they  are  using  public  property  for  private 
gain,  and  that  therefore  they  must  render  to  the  public 
an  equivalent  in  service  or  payment,  or  in  some  other 
way,  for  their  use  of  the  substructure  of  the  street  when 
at  last  they  are  driven,  as  they  must  be,  from  its  surface. 

Very  seriously  militating  against  outdoor  beautifica- 
tion  on  streets  are  the  conventional  signs  of  various 
sorts,  on  the  curb  and  elsewhere.  There  is  only  one 
proper  thing  to  do  about  these  —  they  ought  to  come 
off  and  stay  off,  so  that  there  may  be  that  equality 
which  our  much-quoted  Constitution  is  said  to  guarantee 
to  all. 

I  have  before  spoken  of  trees.  They  are  vastly  im- 
portant on  the  streets  of  America,  though  we  do  not  seem 
to  think  so.  In  Paris,  where  many  millions  of  American 
money  are  extracted  each  year  by  purveying  outdoor 
beautification  to  the  tourists,  a  great  business  street,  the 
Bois  de  Boulogne,  is  set  with  trees,  the  health  of  which 
is  jealously  guarded  and  scrutinized.  When  a  tree  seems 
to  be  failing,  it  is  removed  and  a  healthy  tree  put  in  its 


OUTDOOR  BEAUTIFICATION   IN   A   COMMUNITY       II3 

place.  It  is  found  to  be  profitable  to  keep  trees,  even  on 
business  streets,  in  Paris. 

Vast  help  in  the  beautification  of  American  commu- 
nities can  be  had  by  the  well-considered  planting  of  per- 
manent, and  suitable  trees,  at  proper  distances  from 
each  other,  and  in  the  places  best  fitted  to  them  with 
relation  to  the  other  uses  of  the  street.  These  trees 
should  be  so  planted  as  not  to  interfere  either  with  foot 
or  vehicular  trafiic.  They  can  serve,  and  if  properly 
handled  will  serve,  to  make  the  street  far  pleasanter, 
and  they  will  most  certainly  serve  to  cover  up  or  har- 
monize the  heterogeneous  heights  and  lines  of  business 
structures.  That  is,  they  will  do  this  if  they  themselves 
are  uniform  on  any  given  street,  and  not  of  so  many 
varieties  as  to  suggest  a  botanical  museum.  One  sort 
of  tree  should  predominate  on  a  street,  and  the  distance 
apart,  as  I  have  previously  said,  should  be  considered 
with  relation  to  the  use  of  the  street  and  its  width,  anjd 
to  the  characteristics  of  the  tree  selected. 

Next  in  influence  in  the  substitution  of  civilized  out- 
door beautification  for  civilized  outdoor  ugHfication  is 
the  proper  placing  and  the  proper  architecture  of  public 
or  semipubHc  buildings.  To  so  place  a  school  or  a  city 
hall  or  a  public  library  as  to  have  it  stand  unrelated  to 
any  other  public  or  semipubHc  building,  or  unrelated 
to  any  contiguous  and  satisfactory  open  space,  present 
or  possible,  is  to  provide  in  advance  for  diminishing  the 
effectiveness  of  the  building  in  question.  On  the  con- 
trary, to  so  place  a  public  or  a  semipublic  building,  as, 


114  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

for  instance,  a  church,  as  to  have  it  favorably  influence 
contiguous  buildings  or  the  whole  street,  is  to  double, 
treble,  or  quadruple  the  effective  value  of  the  building 
and  of  the  street. 

This  means,  therefore,  that  thought  must  be  taken 
as  to  the  placing  of  the  buildings,  pubHc  or  semipublic, 
on  which  the  people  collectively  expend  money,  so  that 
they  may  give  the  best  results.  Moreover,  it  is  in  this 
same  connection  most  desirable,  and  indeed  most  es- 
sential, that  the  architecture  involved  be  thoughtfully 
considered,  not  from  the  standpoint  of  loyalty  to  some 
local  technician  or  architect  or  contractor,  but  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  permanent  value  to  the  community 
of  the  structure  in  mind. 

Those  who  read  these  words  will  be  wondering  why 
I  have  not  before  broached  that  which  they  have  thought 
of  as  most  directly  related  to  community  beautification. 
They  will  be  expecting  that  I  shall  speak  of  parks  and 
gardens  and  the  like.  They  will  have  in  mind,  at  least 
some  of  them,  the  conventional  public  square,  in  which 
have  been  placed  all  the  various  things  which  some 
persons  think  are  beautiful,  but  which  so  frequently 
make  a  scrap  heap  of  civic  inadequacy  and  incongruity. 
I  have  in  mind,  for  instance,  a  public  square  in  a  wealthy 
city,  in  the  center  of  which  has  been  erected  a  monu- 
ment memorializing  certain  soldiers.  Near  by  is  a  flag 
pole,  taller  and  somewhat  more  ugly  than  the  monument 
itself.  A  few  feet  away,  at  either  corner  of  the  little 
triangular  central  enclosure,  stands  a  mournful  memorial 


OUTDOOR   BEAUTEFICATION   IN   A   COMMUNITY       II5 

cannon.  There  are  several  wire  flower  baskets  and  a 
few  other  odds  and  ends  of  miscellaneous  city  junk, 
which  have  been  placed  in  the  public  square  because 
some  one  thought  that  was  the  proper  position  for  them. 

Or  I  am  thinking  for  the  moment  of  a  city  park,  barely 
exceeding  twenty  acres  in  extent,  but  including  almost 
every  park  iniquity  that  it  is  possible  to  get  into  such 
a  limited  space.  An  entrance  of  glaring  architectural 
inconsistency,  a  building  for  the  park  keeper  of  even 
greater  ugliness,  horrible  mounds  crowned  with  meaning- 
less floral  distortions,  brick-paved  roadways  leading 
nowhere,  a  trifling  httle  "  Zoo  "  with  a  few  anaemic 
beasts  behind  painted  bars,  and  nowhere  any  utilities 
to  give  wholesome  recreation  to  the  people  make  up 
this  dreadful  spot  called  a  park! 

The  public  recreation  places  which  admittedly  increase 
the  value  of  the  community  through  beautification, 
are  first  of  all  planned  to  give  service  to  the  people  who 
pay  for  them,  or  who  ought  to  pay  for  them.  Recrea- 
tion comes  first.  Tennis  courts  ought  to  precede  flower 
gardens.  A  baseball  field  is  vastly  more  important  than 
a  cast-iron  fountain.  An  organized  playground  is  worth 
forty-seven  soldiers'  monuments.  Some  green  grass 
under  good  trees,  with  benches  on  which  tired  bodies 
may  rest,  and  some  comfortable  paths,  make  up  a  park 
that  is  of  far  more  service  than  an  elaborate  cemetery. 
The  beauty  we  so  constantly  introduce  in  American 
cemeteries  is  invisible  to  the  dead,  and  well-nigh  useless 
to  the  living. 


Il6  EDUCATIONAL  RESOtJRCES 

So  I  would  have  the  public  recreation  places  provided 
as  contributing  to  the  beauty  of  life  by  promoting  whole- 
some play  for  man  and  child,  far  ahead  of  any  costly 
ornamentation.  I  know  of  no  American  city  yet  rich 
enough  to  spend  money  on  monumental  structures,  for 
no  American  city  has  yet  provided  fully  and  adequately 
for  the  recreational  needs  of  its  people  to  the  end  of  their 
health,  happiness,  and  efficiency. 

There  is  one  form  of  beautification  to  which  I  must 
briefly  advert.  It  is  that  involved  in  the  introduction 
of  gifts,  in  the  way  of  fountains,  or  statues,  or  monu- 
ments, and  the  like.  I  have  before  spoken  of  the  way  in 
which  a  public  square  has  been  made  ineffective  through 
miscellaneous  junk  of  this  sort.  I  have  now  in  mind  a 
dreadful  cast-iron  horror  foisted  on  a  defenseless  com- 
munity by  a  well-meaning  woman,  and  of  course  ac- 
cepted by  the  community  under  the  conviction  yet 
prevailing  that  anything  which  any  one  will  give  any 
American  community  must  of  course  be  accepted,  be- 
cause all  American  communities  assume  to  be  objects  of 
charity,  too  poor  to  provide  their  own  adornments,  and 
ever  turning  outward  the  suppliant  palm  of  the  mendicant ! 

There  is  another  town  in  which  thought  is  used  in  the 
acceptance  of  gifts ;  where,  while  gifts  are  welcomed,  they 
must  pass  muster  as  to  appropriateness,  architecture, 
and  character.  There  they  fully  reahze  the  fact  that 
the  giver  of  a  structure  to  be  placed  on  public  ground, 
can  in  no  case  pay  any  considerable  proportion  of  the 
real  expense  of  the  gift.     The  pubKc  must  furnish  the 


OUTDOOR  BEAUTIFICATION   IN  A  COMMUNITY       I17 

abiding  place  for  the  structure  and,  what  is  far  more 
important,  the  public  forces  this  structure  on  the  future 
public  whether  it  be  good  or  bad  —  not,  let  me  hope, 
for  all  time,  but  very  frequently  for  a  long  time.  The 
American  community  which  has  begun  to  be  self- 
respecting  must  therefore,  if  it  is  working  toward  out- 
door beautification,  always  "  look  the  gift  horse  in 
the  mouth"! 

Everything  I  have  above  written  has  been  with  one 
idea,  and  that  is,  briefly,  that  the  way  to  promote  out- 
door beautification  in  any  community  is  to  have  a  plan 
for  the  beautification  and  for  the  development  of  that 
community.  I  shall  hope  the  thought  will  come  into 
the  minds  of  those  who  read  these  words  that  it  is  as 
well  worth  while  to  secure  a  good  plan  for  a  town  as  it  is 
to  secure  a  good  plan  for  a  house,  and  that  it  is  again 
as  well  worth  while  to  secure  a  good  plan  for  rebuilding 
a  town  and  for  remaking  a  community  as  it  is  to  have 
the  best  thought  of  the  best  architect  toward  the  re- 
modeling of  a  structure  it  is  'desired  to  save.  In  the 
words  of  one  of  the  most  eloquent  of  the  advocates  of 
wise  and  sane  city  planning,  I  can  say  that  — 

"  City  Planning  is  not  a  fad  of  to-day,  it  is  a  necessity ; 
it  is  not  an  extravagance,  it  is  an  economy ;  it  is  not  an 
artist's  dream ;  it  is  a  scientific  reality." 

Any  community  large  enough  to  care  for  outdoor 
beautification  is  large  enough  to  obtain  a  plan  for  devel- 
opment. It  may  be  a  simple  plan,  but  it  can  be  had. 
It  need  not  be  expensive  in  the  getting ;  it  is  sure,  if  it 


Il8  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

is  a  good  plan,  to  be  exceedingly  economical  in  the  de- 
veloping. It  substitutes  sanity  and  orderliness  for  stu- 
pidity and  random  work. 

Wishing  to  American  communities  the  outdoor  beauti- 
fication  which  will  take  them  back  toward  the  loveli- 
ness which  excited  the  raptures  of  the  pioneers  who 
began  at  once  to  destroy  it,  I  can  do  nothing  better  in 
closing  than  again  to  urge  the  study  and  the  pursuit  of 
city  planning  as  the  best  possible  means  for  promoting 
outdoor  beautification. 

J.  H.  M. 

SURVEY  OF  COMMUNITY  BEAUTIFICATION  OUT  OF 
DOORS 

1.  What  natural  objects  of  beauty  are  to  be  found  in  the  com- 
munity ?  '  Is  the  community  doing  anything  to  protect  and  pre- 
serve its  natural  beauties?  Have  any  places  of  beauty  been 
destroyed  in  the  past  ?  For  what  reason  ?  Are  any  such  places 
of  beauty  now  being  threatened?  Has  the  community  a  real 
sense  of  the  meaning  of  beauty?  If  not,  can  it  be  developed? 
What  influences,  if  any,  are  working  to  destroy  the  resources  of 
beauty  ?    Are  there  any  latent  resources  that  could  be  developed  ? 

2.  Is  the  community  blinded  in  any  way  by  commercialism? 
Are  the  roads  and  streets  lined  with  billboards  that  shut  off  the 
view  of  surrounding  country  ?  Is  there  any  marring  of  the  trees 
by  signs  or  any  defacing  of  landscapes  ?  Is  there  no  way  of  re- 
moving these  marks  of  a  commercialized  ugliness  ? 

3.  What  are  the  standards  of  the  community  with  reference  to 
orderliness  and  beauty?  Is  there  any  sense  of  planning  in  the 
city?  Are  the  streets  and  boulevards  laid  out  with  reference  to 
developing  the  beauty  of  the  community  ?  Are  there  any  beautiful 
buildings  in  the  community,  —  churches,  schools,  or  dwelling  houses? 


OUTDOOR   BEAUTIFICATION   IN   A   COMMUNITY       IIQ 

Are  there  any  parks  that  have  been  beautified  ?  Is  the  taste  for 
making  nature  over  too  highly  developed  ?  Are  the  buildings  too 
much  ornamented  ? 

4.  Is  anything  being  done  in  the  homes  or  schools  of  the  com- 
munity to  cultivate  the  taste  for  beauty  in  the  outdoors?  Is 
there  any  feeling  of  necessity  for  such  development?  Has  the 
school  done  anything  to  beautify  its  own  location?  Are  there 
school  gardens  and  well-kept  school  lawns  ?  Is  the  school  build- 
ing a  creditable  or  beautiful  piece  of  architecture  ?  Are  the  roads 
leading  to  the  school  ragged  and  unkempt,  or  has  the  community 
a  sense  of  beauty  in  caring  for  its  roads?  What  is  the  general 
character  of  the  home  places  of  the  community  ?  Are  the  farm 
homes  well  kept,  or  alp  the  yards  Uttered  with  rubbish  of  all  sorts  ? 
Has  the  community  really  developed  a  beauty  conscience  in  ref- 
erence to  its  homes,  its  streets  and  roads,  its  public  buildings, 
its  landscapes,  and  its  whole  surroundings  ?  If  not,  what  value 
is  there  in  teaching  consideration  of  beauty  in  the  schools  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Eggleston.    Home  and  Us  Surroundings. 

Eliot,  Charles.    Landscape  Architecture. 

Roberts.     The  Farmstead. 

Scott.    Art  of  Beautifying  Suburban  Grounds  and  Homes. 

Wheeler,  G.    Rural  Homes. 

Kern,  O.  J.    Among  Country  Schools. 


CHAPTER  IX 

ECONOMY  AND  BEAUTY  IN  THE  HOMES  OF 
THE  COMMUNITY 

Economy  and  beauty  are  to  be  classed  together  as 
among  the  things  fundamental  in  the  creation  and  main- 
tenance of  a  satisfactory  home  life.  Family  relationship 
r  in  its  mere  animal  form  may  exist  quite  independent  of 
any  special  environment,  but  family  life  in  its  fullest 
sense  cannot  be  realized  outside  a  setting  of  material 
things  which  must  yield  a  measure,  at  least,  of  both 
physical  and  mental  satisfaction.  Home  life  presup- 
poses a  situation  in  which  the  necessities  of  life  are 
administered  amid  congenial  surroundings.  It  is  not 
possible  to  realize  such  a  situation,  however,  unless  the 
members  of  the  family  direct  their  efforts  harmoniously 
toward  securing  the  maximum  return  in  comfort  and 
beauty. 

Economic  Basis  of  Home  Life.  —  The  economic  re- 
sources of  the  family  must  receive  early  consideration. 
Under  the  term  income  may  be  classed  most  of  the  means 
for  supplying  human  wants.  In  other  words,  nearly 
all  possessions  represent  the  exercise  of  some  sort  of  pur- 
chasing power.  This  power  may  be  either  money, 
labor,  or  discretion. 

120 


HOUSEHOLD   BEAUTY   AND   ECONOMY  121 

Money  Income.  —  Money  income,  the  nominal  in- 
come, may  be  told  off  in  current  coin.  Ready  money 
affords  a  quick  and  effective  means  for  supplying  many 
wants,  where  the  market  offerings  are  ample  and  varied. 
Also  where  industries  are  highly  specialized,  where  each 
worker  puts  forth  but  one  product,  or  part  of  a  product, 
money  is  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  what  is  needed. 

In  too  many  cases,  however,  the  desirabihty  of  a  large 
money  income  is  overemphasized  by  those  who  are 
helping  to  form  opinion  on  the  subject.  Little  attention 
is  given  to  the  thought  that  no  individual  can  be  re- 
garded as  successful  unless  he  can  serve  himself  in  some 
degree  at  least.  Also,  that  the  unregulated  spending 
of  money  leads  to  nothing  but  absurdity. 

Real  Income.  —  The  real  income,  as  it  has  to  do  with 
family  Hfe,  consists  of  money  income,  plus  the  power  and 
the  desire  of  the  family  to  perform  useful  labor,  plus  their 
discretion  and  taste  in  the  matter  of  spending  either 
money  or  labor. 

The  value  of  work  carried  on  in  the  home  as  supple- 
mental to  money  income  can  hardly  be  measured.  Very 
often  work  done  in  this  way  is  not  equal  in  money  value 
to  the  wages  which  might  be  earned  during  the  same  time, 
and  arguments  seeking  to  prove  the  economic  loss 
through  the  doing  of  old-fashioned  home  work  are  becom- 
ing quite  popular.  In  judging  of  the  value  of  such  work, 
however,  several  facts  must  be  borne  in  mind.  In  the 
first  place,  wages  are  earned  by  those  who  devote  time 
and  attention  to  a  certain  business,  not  by  persons  who 


122  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

can  give  only  odd  hours  or  half  hours  to  money  making. 
One  must  be  a  wage  earner  in  earnest  in  order  to  have 
his  or  her  time  command  a  money  value.  The  mother 
cannot  well  enter  formally  into  business  for  profit,  but, 
nevertheless,  aside  from  attending  to  her  preeminent 
duties  to  her  family,  she  niay  fill  a  position  of  great 
economic  importance  through  the  proper  administration 
of  the  affairs  of  her  home. 

Again,  it  is  not  desirable  that  the  children  interrupt 
their  school  life  in  order  to  earn  a  few  dimes  at  a  child's 
work  of  doing  chores.  But  they  can,  without  doubt, 
add  much  to  family  confort  through  the  doing  of  odd 
tasks  so  conveniently  at  hand  in  the  home.  Aside  from 
these  considerations,  the  assuming  of  small  duties  by 
children  is  of  sufficient  importance  in  their  training  to 
warrant  the  arrangement,  even  though  the  family 
balance  sheet  fails  to  show  any  other  profit  from  it. 

The  acknowledged  earner  of  the  money  income,  as  well, 
will  find,  under  most  circumstances,  both  health  and 
wealth  increased  through  the  cutting  short  of  his  hours 
of  money  getting,  and  giving  a  Kttle  time  to  recreative 
home  work. 

The  second  point  which  must  be  borne  in  mind  when 
the  delegation  of  work  is  contemplated,  is  the  fact  that, 
at  present  time  at  least,  services  rendered  upon  a  com- 
mercial basis  are  weighted  by  costs  over  and  above  the 
cost  of  the  labor  itself.  The  purchaser  of  such  services 
must  pay  for  the  cost  of  administration  of  the  business 
as  well  as  for  the  service. 


HOUSEHOLD  BEAUTY  AND  ECONOMY      1 23 

To  summarize,  then,  work  done  in  the  home  is  usually 
performed  by  members  of  the  family  who,  for  one  reason 
or  another,  are  not  otherwise  gainfully  employed,  or  by 
the  money  makers  outside  their  regular  working  hours. 
Also,  the  use  of  the  home  as  a  workshop  entails  little  or 
no  added  cost  of  the  product. 

Discretion  in  Directing  Expenditure.  —  The  matter 
of  directing  the  expenditure  of  either  money  or  labor 
is  the  most  complex  and  elusive  element  entering  into 
the  administration  of  a  home.  Nothing  short  of  a  far- 
reaching  outlook,  and  a  careful  weighing  of  relative 
values  can  be  expected  to  bring  satisfactory  results. 
Senseless  spending  and  short-sighted  saving  of  money, 
random  expenditure  of  time  and  labor,  bring  little  but 
chaos  and  disappointment. 

A  century  ago  choice  in  expenditure  was  greatly 
limited  by  circumstances.  Money  was  scarce,  and  the 
offerings  of  the  market  almost  negligible.  The  spending 
of  money  was  an  event.  Food  consisted  of  the  products 
of  the  home  garden  and  fields.  Clothing  was  limited 
to  the  possibiHties  of  the  household  loom.  Labor  took 
the  direction  of  simple  necessity.  The  standard  of  living 
of  a  given  family  corresponded  very  nearly  to  the 
skill  and  energy  of  its  members. 

Contrast  all  this  with  present  day  conditions.  Money 
is  plentiful  and  the  markets  overflow  with  their  offerings. 
The  spending  of  large  amounts  of  money  is  inevitable, 
for  the  reason  that  money  is  now  the  simplest  key  to 
much  of  the  supply. 


124  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

But  even  under  these  circumstances,  the  direction  of 
the  energies  of  the  family  remains  of  great  importance. 
Two  facts  must  be  borne  in  mind :  first,  many  of  the 
best  things  of  Kfe  are  not  to  be  bought  with  money. 
Imagine  a  nation,  or  a  single  family  even,  giving  over 
all  the  joy  of  creative  work,  satisfied  to  live  upon  what 
money  alone  can  supply.-^ 

In  the  second  place,  it  is  only  occasionally  that  an 
income  is  to  be  found  that  is  adequate  to  support  an  idle 
household,  and  attempts  to  accompHsh  the  feat  with 
insufl&cient  means  result  either  in  accumulated  debts, 
a  lowering  of  the  standard  of  living,  or  in  a  premature 
breaking  up  of  the  household  into  supplemental  money 
makers,  —  the  last  being  the  most  pitiful  confession 
of  family  bankruptcy. 

Beauty  in  the  Home.  —  The  matter  of  beauty  in  the 
home  seems  a  thing  apart  from  the  weighing  of  economic 
values,  and  yet  the  beauty  of  utiHty  ranks  first  in  the 
canons  of  taste.  The  most  timid  householder  may  rest 
assured  of  one  very  fundamental  principle,  —  any  ar- 
ticle confessedly  useful  is,  by  the  same  token,  possessed 
of  the  beauty  of  utility.  It  is  only  when  the  attempt 
is  made  to  load  a  useful  thing  with  alien  ornamentation 
that  it  becomes  grotesque. 

Again,  there  is  beauty  in  simpHcity.  This  is  the  most 
diffi.cult  to  work  out  in  this  day  of  variety  and  super- 

1  As  a  matter  of  fact,  money  has  no  value  except  as  it  represents 
productive  work.  If,  then,  productive  work  is  avoided  by  any  consider- 
able proportion  of  the  people,  the  value  of  money  is  lowered  and  prices 


HOUSEHOLD  BEAUTY  AND  ECONOMY       1 25 

fluity.  It  is  little  wonder  that  the  artist  hesitates  and 
rejects,  giving  his  approval  finally  to  the  production 
which  he  denominates  as  "  restrained."  The  novice 
may  take  the  hint  that  beauty  is  more  often  a  result  of 
subtraction  than  of  addition. 

Of  all  the  rules  of  art,  however,  the  one  most  potent 
in  household  administration  is  the  rule  emphasizing  the 
beauty  of  consistency  or  complementary  beauty.  Two 
things,  each  one  beautiful  in  itself,  may  be  made  to  trans- 
gress all  laws  of  taste  through  being  brought  together. 
The  temptation  to  overreach  in  one  direction  is  often 
very  great,  and  the  whole  effect  is  thrown  out  of  harmony 
in  contrast.  It  does  not  follow  from  this,  however,  that 
nothing  superior  should  be  chosen  until  all  one's  posses- 
sions can  be  of  like  quality.  On  the  contrary,  such  a 
choice  may  lead  to  the  subordination  or  elimination 
of  tawdry  contrasts.  The  appreciation  of  true  beauty 
will  again  lead  back  to  simplicity. 

These  three  things,  then,  utility,  simplicity,  and 
consistency,  remain  as  safe  ground,  no  matter  how  great 
variations  may  exist  in  standards  of  taste. 

Harmony  in  the  General  Apportionment  of  Family 
Resources.  —  The  consummation  of  economy  and  beauty 
in  the  home  waits,  in  all  cases,  for  a  harmonious  direction 
of  resources.  Considerable  attention  has  been  given  by 
students  of  home  economics  to  the  matter  of  dividing 
the  money  income,  assigning  certain  percentages  to  the 
accounts  of  fpod,  shelter,  clothing^  education,  amuse- 
ment, etc.,  seeking  to  call  attention  to  incongruities  re- 


126  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

suiting  from  unbalanced  expenditures.  Again,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  household  administration,  there  must 
be  a  wise  taking  stock  of  the  working  strength  of  the 
family,  before  a  given  program  of  living  is  fastened  upon 
the  home.  The  adoption  of  complicated  furnishings, 
or  the  insistence  upon  certain  methods  of  doing  work, 
often  means  the  sacrifice  of  some  one's  personal  prog- 
ress. Careful  thought  given  to  these  matters  will  aid 
in  compelling  material  things  to  contribute  their  share 
to  the  ultimate  good  of  each  member  of  the  family. 

A.  R.  V. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   STUDY    OF   HOME   LIFE    OF   A 
COMMUNITY 

What  are  the  purposes  of  home  life  ? 

How  do  material  surroundings  affect  the  home  ? 

Do  the  dwellings  of  the  community  serve  the  reasonable  needs 
of  their  owners  ? 

When  is  a  house  too  large  for  a  given  family  ? 

When  is  it  too  small  ? 

Are  the  dwellings  well  kept  up  ? 

Do  the  grounds  contribute  their  share  to  the  enjoyment  of  the 
family  and  community  ? 

Is  any  effort  put  forth  toward  securing  harmony  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  neighborhood  ? 

In  what  ways  may  harmony  be  wrought  without  too  great 
sacrifice  of  personal  preference  ? 

What  part  of  the  general  upkeep  of  the  neighborhood  is  assumed 
by  the  public  ? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  public  control  of  improvements  ? 

What  are  the  disadvantages  ? 

What  is  the  general  economic  status  of  the  commimity  ? 


HOUSEHOLD  BEAUTY  AND  ECONOMY       1 27 

Are  any  of  the  families  possessed  of  great  wealth  ? 

Are  any  very  poor  ? 

Is  the  general  standard  of  living  high  or  low  ? 

How  does  the  community  standard  affect  the  standard  in  a  given 
home? 

Note  cases  where  lack  of  training  in  home  management  results 
in  a  low  standard  of  living. 

What  costs  are  involved  in  such  home  work  as  the  baking  of 
bread,  for  example  ? 

What  costs  are  included  in  the  price  paid  for  a  loaf  at  the  baker's  ? 

Are  the  homes  of  the  community  supported  normally;  that 
is,  are  the  earners  of  the  money  income  of  mature  age  and  re- 
lieved of  the  personal  care  of  young  children  ? 

Is  the  housekeeping  normally  administered  by  interested  mem- 
bers of  the  family  ? 

Are  there  noticeable  consequences  in  cases  where  the  homes  are 
not  thus  normally  supported  or  administered  ? 

Does  surplus  money  go  noticeably  in  any  one  of  the  following 
directions:  improvement  of  the  home,  food,  dress,  furnishings, 
public  amusements,  private  entertainment,  education,  travel, 
church  and  charity,  social  service,  savings  ? 

Note  cases  in  which  a  reasonable  division  of  expenditure  is 
evident.    Are  these  homes  successful  ? 

In  case  you  wished  to  improve  the  general  effect  in  house  fur- 
nishings noted,  would  the  first  move  be  to  add  to  or  take  from  ? 

Study  cases  where  good  taste  has  been  of  economic  value  in 
matters  of  clothing,  food,  furnishings,  etc.,  —  cases  where  there 
has  been  an  actual  saving  of  either  time,  labor,  or  money. 

What  compromises  might  be  effected  between  fashion  and 
economy  in  all  these  matters  ? 

Is  there  any  vital  relation  between  fashion  and  beauty  ? 

What  sort  of  social  life  is  provided  for  in  the  homes  ? 

Are  the  children  given  a  share  in  the  responsibilities  and  pleasures 
of  hospitality  ? 


128  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Study  the  findings  of  any  local  organization  having  for  their 
purpose  a  serious  consideration  of  the  affairs  of  the  home. 

What  recognition  does  the  school  give  of  the  work  or  educational 
influence  of  the  home  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Periodicals 

Journal  of  Home  Economics.    Baltimore. 

American  Journal  of  Sociology.     Chicago. 

The  Independent.    New  York. 

The  Outlook.     New  York. 

Atlantic  Monthly.     Boston. 

American  Magazine.    New  York. 

Craftsman.     New  York. 

Good  Housekeeping.     Springfield,  Mass. 

The  Delineator.     New  York. 

House  Beautiful.     New  York. 

Woman's  Home  Companion.     New  York. 

Note,  —  The  above  Hst  is  far  from  being  complete.  There  is 
no  question  but  that  the  home  is,  just  now,  in  a  transitional  state, 
and  articles  dealing  with  the  various  phases  of  the  situation  are 
to  be  found  in  all  periodicals  of  thoughtful  character. 

Books 

Streightoff,  Frank  Hatch.  The  Standard  of  Living  among  the 
Industrial  People  of  America.     (An  excellent  piece  of  work.) 

RoSANQUET,  Mrs.     The  Standard  of  Life. 

Richards,  Mrs.  E.  H.     The  Cost  of  Living. 

Richards,  Mrs.  E.  H.     The  Cost  of  Food. 

Brown,  Mary  Wilcox.     The  Development  of  Thrift. 

Annual  and  Special  Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor.  United 
States  Bureau  of  Commerce  and  Labor.    Washington,  D.C. 


HOUSEHOLD  BEAUTY  AND  ECONOMY       1 29 

Richardson,  Bertha  J.     The  Woman  Who  Spends.    (Boston.) 

Devine,  Edward.    Economic  Function  of  Woman. 

Campbell,  Helen.    Household  Economics. 

Hunt,  Caroline.    Home  Problems  from  a  New  Standpoint. 

Bevier,  Isabel,  and  Usher,  Susannah.  The  Home  Economics 
Movement. 

RosANQUET,  Mrs.     The  Family. 

Hard,  William.     The  Women  of  To-morrow. 

Wilbur,  Mary  A.     Everyday  Business  for  Women. 

Earle,  Mrs.  Alice  M.    Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days. 

Earle,  Mrs.  Alice  M.  Customs  and  Fashions  of  Old  New  Eng- 
land. 

Ely,  Richard  T.    Evolution  of  Industrial  Society. 

Bevier,  Isabel.     The  House. 

Weaver,  Lawrence.     The  House  and  its  Equipment. 

Weaver,  Lawrence.    Small  Country  Houses  of  To-day. 

Briggs,  R.  a.     The  Essentials  of  a  Country  House. 

Richards,  Mrs.,  and  Talbot,  Miss.    Home  Sanitation. 

Gerhard,  W.  P.    House  Draining  and  Sanitary  Plumbing. 

Ornsbee,  Agnes  B.     The  House  Comfortable. 

Wheeler,  Candace.    Household  Art. 

Kellogg,  A.  M.    Home  Furnishing. 

Wheeler,  Candace.    Principles  of  Decoration. 

Morris,  Willla.m.    Arts  and  Crafts,  Essays. 

Eastlake.     Hints  on  Household  Taste. 

RusKiN.     Two  Paths  in  Art. 

Hutchinson.    Food  and  the  Principles  of  Dietetics. 

Richards,  Mrs.  E.  H.    Food  Materials  and  their  Adulterations. 

Leach.    Food  Inspection  and  Analysis. 

Prudden.     Dust  and  its  Dangers. 

Hutchinson,  Woods.    Handbook  of  Health. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Farmers'  Bulletins  on 
Food.     (Free.) 

Salmon,  Lucy  M.    Domestic  Service. 


130  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Harrison,  Eveleen.    Home  Nursing. 
Brown,  Daniel  Rollins,  M.D.    The  Baby. 
Tracy,  Susan  E.    Studies  in  Invalid  Occupation. 
McKeever,  William  A.    Farm  Boys  and  Girls. 
Hall,  G.  Stanley.     Youth,  Its  Education,  Regimen,  and  Hygiene. 
ft^^HiGGiNS,  Myrta  M.     Little  Gardens  for  Boys  and  Girls. 
Hapgood,  George.    Home  Games. 
KiNNE,  Helen.     Equipment  for  Teaching  Domestic  Science. 

Note. —  References  lacking  the  name  of  the  pubhsher  can  be 
obtained,  in  most  cases,  by  addressing  any  one  of  the  pubhshing 
houses. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE   GENERAL   SOCIAL  LIFE   OF  THE   COM- 
MUNITY 

Tms  subject  is  fairly  inclusive  of  all  that  is  proposed 
in  this  whole  book ;  and  broadly  speaking,  much  of  what 
has  been  done  in  the  other  chapters  might  very  well  have 
been  included  here.  But  the  life  of  the  community  has 
distinctive  aspects  within  its  organic  unity,  and  there  is 
room  —  and  need  —  for  a  careful  constructive  study 
of  the  Hfe  of  the  community  from  the  standpoint  of  its 
social  interests,  using  the  word  in  its  narrower  sense. 
There  is  a  social  life  in  many  village  and  rural  communi- 
ties that  is  utterly  unknown  in  many  others,  perhaps 
in  most.  Industrial  developments  tend  to  dwarf  the 
thought  of  social  life,  and  in  many  communities  the 
social  instincts  are  almost  wholly  gone.  In  their  place 
has  come  a  sort  of  rural  paganism  that  is  almost  wholly 
materialistic  in  interest,  in  effort,  and  in  outcome. 

This  is  particularly  presented  in  Chapter  XII.  Over 
against  this  moral  defect  of  community  life  there  is  set 
forth  in  Chapter  XI  the  constructive  program  for  play 
and  recreation.  But  this  program  does  not  exhaust  the 
possibilities  of  community  social  construction.  Com- 
munity play  and  recreation  must,  of  course,  come  into 
existence  in  our  American  Hfe  as  it  has  been  in  existence 

131 


132  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

for  centuries  in  European  communities.  But  commu- 
nity play  is  not  the  whole  of  social  hfe.  Children  are 
social  from  the  first,  and  they  become  more  and  more 
social  until  the  culmination  of  Kfe  in  the  little  society 
of  the  new  home  with  its  growing  world  of  responsibil- 
ities, cares,  and  outlooks.  Much  of  this  common  social 
life  and  interest  was  manifested  in  the  neighborhood 
"  parties  "  of  the  rural  regions  of  our  earher  American 
life,  —  meetings  that  have  been  largely  superseded  by 
other  forms  of  expression.  Those  older  "  parties  "  took 
the  form  of  dances,  "  surprise  parties,"  where  some  one 
was  taken  by  surprise  on  his  birthday,  and  in  some  com- 
munities there  were  card  parties.  In  many  communi- 
ties where  a  certain  restraint  was  set  up  by  religious  in- 
terests, dances  and  card  parties  were  not  permitted; 
so,  all  too  frequently,  the  social  gatherings  degenerated 
into  insipid  and  frittering  forms  of  games,  "  kissing 
games,''  and  the  like.  Courtship  was  accepted  as  a  part 
of  the  implicit  meaning  of  the  gathering,  but  it  was  a 
source  of  considerable  coarse  discussion  and  even  vulgar 
"  horse  play." 

The  modern  rural  and  village  commimity  is  facing  its 
greatest  constructive  problem  on  this  social  sid^  In- 
dustry is  becoming  divorced   from   the  actual  motives 

'  of  life  in  many  country  communities  quite  as  much  as  in 
the  cities.  Boys  and  girls  are  working  for  money  as 
formerly  they  did  not  do  in  the  country  districts.     They 

;  have  money  to  spend ;  they  have  means  of  communica- 
tion for  the  making  of   social  plans;  they  have  means 


THE    GENERAL   SOCIAL   LIFE    OF   THE   COMMUNITY       133 

of  making  quick  trips  to  all  parts  of  the  community  and 
to  larger  distant  towns ;  in  place  of  the  older  neighbor- 
hood gatherings  there  is  much  "  going  to  town  "  for  an 
evening,  especially  for  Saturday  evenings.  The  older 
community  customs  have  broken  down;  city  ways  of 
spending  the  social  hours  have  come  in,  and  some  of  the 
old-time  sincerities  have  passed  away  with  the  greater 
sophistication  of  the  farm  and  the  village. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  a  larger  and  finer  and  better 
life  is  needed  in  such  communities.  It  is  coming.  But 
its  coming  should  not  be  dominated  by  city  thinking, 
or  patterned  upon  city  ways  of  doing.  The  great  prob- 
lem is  that  of  conserving  the  real  social  resources  of  the 
local  community  itself ;  and  this  conserving  process  must 
take  place  within  the  community,  by  the  intelligence  of 
the  community  itself.  Of  course,  the  intelligence  of 
the  whole  world  belongs  to  the  community,  if  the  com- 
munity can  use  it.  The  great  difficulty  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  our  rural  and  village  communities  are  schooled 
to  despise  their  own  resources,  both  social  and  intel- 
lectual, and  to  believe  that  nothing  is  worth  while  that 
does  not  come  with  the  city's  stamp  of  approval  on  it.  / 

The  social  leader  of  the  rural  and  village  community 
occupies  a  most  important  place  in  the  life  of  the  nation. 
The  country  problem  is  a  most  vital  problem,  and  it  is 
essentially  a  problem  of  the  health  or  decadence  of  the 
social  Hfe  of  the  community.  Under  all  else  that  con- 
cerns us  as  human  beings  lie  the  great  social  instincts. 
If  these  are  provided  for  in  healthy,  generous,  pure,  and 


134  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

satisfying  forms,  the  call  of  the  city  will  lose  its  power. 
But  if  these  are  not  provided  for,  the  city's  call  will  be- 
come insistent ;  and  the  boys  and  girls  will  impatiently 
count  the  days  until  they  shall  be  free  to  seek  out  the 
places  of  a  larger  and  more  satisfying  sociability. 
Their  own  lives  demand  it.  Their  social  interests  are 
"  symptoms  of  craving  for  needed  exercise  of  functions  "  ; 
the  country  and  the  village  could,  by  taking  thought 
for  their  life,  provide  a  world  of  satisfaction  for  their 
boys  and  girls,  as  well  as  for  the  older  members  of  the 
community.  Too  often,  however,  these  social  instincts 
and  needs  are  ignored  or  deplored  and  there  is  no  recourse 
for  the  individual  but  to  run  the  risk  of  life  in  the  great 
"  city  wilderness  "  that  looks  so  inviting  but  that  may 
turn  out  to  be  the  most  lonely  place  on  the  planet. 

Social  life,  the  meeting  of  people  for  purposes  other 
than  business  (though  not  utterly  separate  from  busi- 
ness), is  one  of  the  essential  needs  of  the  normal  individual. 
Provision  for  it  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  community  life. 
No  industrial  development  can  be  permanent  without  it ; 
no  intellectual  life  is  really  possible  aside  from  it;  no 
art  or  religion  comes  to  real  meaning  apart  from  it. 
There  must  be  leaders  who  have  intelligence  enough  to 
see  and  plan  and  foresee, — social  prophets ;  there  must  be 
provision  in  the  community  world  for  a  healthy,  broad, 
rich,  and  yet  good,  social  life.  There  must  be  opportunity 
for  all,  old  and  young,  rich  and  poor.  In  social  life  is 
bound  up  the  common  health  of  the  whole  community. 

The  teachers,  ministers,  lawyers,  and  other  professional 


THE   GENERAL   SOCIAL  LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY      I35 

men  and  women  of  the  community  need  to  feel  their 
responsibility  at  this  point.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 
teacher  and  minister.  Their  equipment  for  their  work 
should  include  skill  in  the  leadership  of  the  social  func- 
tions of  their  communities.  But  such  leadership  must 
be  of  the  forces  that  are  already  at  work.  It  must  not 
be  snobbish  or  superior  in  attitude. 

There  should  be  an  adequate  supply  of  ideas  as  to  ways 
of  spending  the  hours  of  social  gatherings.  Eating, 
playing  games,  guessing  contests,  cards,  dancing,  music, 
"  stunts,'^  conversation,  excitements :  how  shall  the 
hours  of  a  social  gathering  be  spent?  Health  must  be 
enlarged,  vitality  increased,  emotions  deepened,  tensions 
of  life  relaxed,  pleasures  renewed,  friends  brought  closer, 
hopes  made  more  genuine,  and  faith  in  life  and  humanity 
strengthened.  Here  is  rehgion ;  here  is  education ;  here 
are  the  gates  of  life  itself.  The  community  conscious- 
ness may  be  increased  or  destroyed  by  these  hours. 
How  shall  they  be  spent  ? 

The  whole  community  must  share  in  the  social  life. 
We  are  breaking  up  our  social  experiences  in  two  great 
directions,  and  like  all  breakings,  these  leave  us  without 
a  real  world  in  which  to  live.  We  are  breaking  up  our 
world  into  the  two  classes  of  "  those  who  belong  "  and 
"those  who  have  not  arrived."  This  is  a  serious  break, 
since  it  prevents  each  group  from  having  a  real  social 
life.  But  perhaps  there  is  a  more  serious  break:  the 
horizontal  break  between  the  children  and  the  adults. 
Never  before  perhaps  in  the  world  have  the  children  of 


136  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

the  community  been  released  so  completely  from  both 
adult  cooperation  and  adult  criticism  and  control  in  their 
social  life.  This  is  especially  to  be  noted  in  connection 
with  the  questions  of  courtship.  We  have  developed 
a  rather  curious  idea  that  courtship  is  fundamentally 
the  concern  of  the  two  persons  most  absorbed  in  the  pro- 
cess. But  the  primitive  world  knew  better.  Courtship, 
though  it  seems  to  be  wholly  personal,  is  really  more  a 
social  concern  than  personal,  and  in  its  fundamental  es- 
sence it  is  as  much  a  part  of  the  cosmic  process  as  are 
the  movements  of  the  stars.  It  is  personal,  of  course; 
but  its  full  personal  meanings,  as  distinct  from  the  mere 
mating  of  the  animals,  can  be  understood  and  assured 
only  as  courtship  rises  to  the  level  of  a  social  concern 
and  has  thrown  about  it  the  assurance  of  social  signifi- 
cance and  control. 

Let  us  sum  it  all  up  by  saying  that  the  social  life  of  the 
community  needs  a  common  center,  or  centers.  The 
schoolhouse,  or  the  church,  some  public  building,  owned 
by  the  community,  should  be  made  this  common  center. 
Here  community  interest  and  control  should  centralize 
all  the  essential  social  activities  of  the  whole  community. 
Here  the  children  should  meet  for  their  games  and  play, 
in  the  g3minasium  or  the  community  playfield.  Here 
the  older  people  should  come  for  their  community  meet- 
ings, their  political  gatherings,  their  industrial  associa- 
tions, their  religious  meetings,  and  their  neighborly 
communions.  Here  the  young  men  and  women  should 
have  their  parties  and  their  fun,  frankly  recognized  as 


THE   GENERAL   SOCIAL   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY       I37 

a  part  of  the  community  life,  and  the  promise  of  the 
future  life  of  the  community.  Over  against  the  moral 
and  social  deficiencies  that  may  be,  or  have  been,  in  the 
community,  here  should  gather  the  constructive  social 
forces,  meeting  the  insistent  social  needs  of  the  whole 
commimity  and  providing  healthy  social  commingling 
for  all,  according  to  their  needs,  and  not  according  to 
their  financial  standings. 

This  social  center  idea  is  the  hope  of  the  rural  and  vil- 
lage community.  What  these  more  sparsely  settled 
communities  need  more  than  anything  else  is  knowledge 
of  themselves  and  of  each  other.  The  schools  of  the 
community  need  the  reviving  influences  of  the  coming 
together  of  the  whole  people.  The  children  need  to 
think  of  their  school  as  more  than  a  place  of  torture ; 
this  can  come  about  only  as  the  adults  of  the  community 
come  to  believe  in  the  schools,  as  they  do  not  now  be- 
lieve. All  the  questions  and  problems  of  the  community 
Hfe,  industrial,  sanitary,  political,  educational,  moral,  and 
religious,  need  to  be  seen  in  the  light  of  complete  com- 
munity intelligence.  All  the  lighter  moods  and  the  more 
primitive  and  instinctive  needs  of  the  community  and  of 
individuals  in  the  community  need  socially  provided, 
socially  accepted,  and  socially  controlled  opportunities 
for  expression,  for  exercise,  for  enjoyment,  and  for 
direction.  The  community  social  center,  whether  at  the 
school,  or  in  some  church,  or  some  building  specially 
constructed  for  the  purpose,  the  community's  common 
meeting  ground,  shall  become,  if  our  intelligence  rises 


138  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

to  the  level  of  our  fleeting  intuitions,  the  well  of  social 
life  sending  forth  its  health-giving  waters  to  all  the 
community,  cleansing  and  purifying,  destroying  the 
evil,  making  fruitful  the  soil  of  community  living  for  the 
growth  of  all  the  finest  social  virtues  and  skills,  assuring 
us  of  that  finer  community  life  about  which  the  world 
has  so  long  dreamed  and  hoped :  a  community  life  into 
which  "  there  shall  enter  nothing  that  is  unclean,  or 
that  worketh  an  abomination,  or  that  maketh  a  lie." 

J.  K.  H. 

SURVEY    OF    THE    SOCIAL   LIFE    OF    THE    LOCAL    COM- 
MUNITY 

1.  For  questions  dealing  with  the  recreation  and  play  life  of  the 
community,  see  Chapter  XI.  For  a  survey  of  the  social  and  moral 
deficiencies  of  the  commimity,  see  Chapter  XII. 

2.  Make  a  complete  study  of  the  social  gatherings  of  the  com- 
munity : 

What  are  the  objects  which  draw  people  together  in  your 
community?  Where  do  they  meet?  What  determines  the 
attendance?  Who  are  the  leaders  of  various  types  of  social 
gatherings?  Who  pays  the  expenses ?  What  are  the  "means  of 
entertainment";  i.e.,  how  do  those  who  attend  pass  the  time? 
What  are  the  prevailing  forms  of  social  games,  plays,  etc.? 
How  are  the  social  gatherings  controlled?  Is  there  any  social 
control  of  any  sort  ?  What  are  the  social  customs  with  reference 
to  these  social  gatherings  ?  Are  there  any  social  gatherings  which 
include  the  whole  community,  old  and  young,  rich  and  poor? 
Are  there  social  classes  in  your  community?  What  was  their 
origin?  How  fixed  and  final  are  they?  What  are  the  effects 
upon  the  community  of  these  common  social  gatherings  ?  What 
are  the  effects  upon  the  individuals  ?    What  are  the  relationships 


THE   GENERAL   SOCIAL   LIFE    OF   THE    COMMUNITY       139 

of  these  social  gatherings  to  the  school  life  of  the  children  ?  Are 
these  gatherings  doing  something  for  the  children  that  no  other 
agency  is  attempting  ? 

3.  What  are  the  forms  of  commercialized  social  gatherings  in 
the  community?  Are  there  public  dance  halls  run  for  profit? 
If  so,  what  people  attend  the  dances  ?  Why  do  they  attend  ?  Is 
the  influence  of  these  public  dances  good  or  bad?  Is  there  any 
duty  here  for  the  community  as  a  whole  ?  Are  the  saloons  of  the 
community  social  meeting  places  ?  What  is  their  social  influence  ? 
Are  there  pool  rooms  or  other  chances  for  indoor  social  Hfe  and 
commercialized  play?  What  is  the  influence  of  these  places? 
Are  the  churches  or  schools  doing  anything  to  counteract  these 
social  opportunities  furnished  for  profit?  Wha,t  standards  of 
morahty  are  maintained  by  those  gatherings  which  are  for  profit  ? 

4.  Are  there  any  influences  that  interfere  with  the  neighbor- 
liness  of  the  community  ?  Are  there  any  old  feuds  of  a  racial, 
financial,  or  social  sort  ?  Has  the  community  ever  been  broken 
up  over  any  sort  of  question ;  e.g.,  the  location  of  a  schoolhouse, 
a  church,  or  any  other  sort  of  public  building  ?  Are  there  any 
lasting  animosities  between  families,  or  individuals,  such  as  have 
serious  influence  upon  the  social  life  ?  Do  any  of  these  influences 
affect  the  life  or  work  of  the  school  in  any  way  ? 

5.  What  efforts  are  being  made  to  provide  for  the  social  Hfe  of 
the  boys  and  girls?  Do  they  live  normal  lives  for  their  ages, 
or  are  they  aping  the  manners  and  fashions  of  the  adults?  Are 
there  boys'  clubs  and  girls'  clubs  devoted  to  normal  youthful 
activities  ?  Are  the  boys  and  girls  catching  a  genuine  community 
spirit  and  love  in  the  midst  of  their  common  living?  Does  the 
community  mean  a  pleasant  future  and  satisfactory  life  for  them, 
or  are  they  looking  for  chances  to  get  away  ? 

6.  What  is  being  done  to  protect  the  young  men  and  women  in 
the  exercise  of  their  normal  social  instincts  ?  What  are  the  court- 
ship customs  of  the  community?  Does  the  community  exercise 
any  real  supervision  over  courtships,  or  does  it  merely  hold  aloof 


I40  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

until  some  evil  result  appears  ?  Can  the  community  talk  seriously 
about  these  things,  or  is  it  still  primitive  in  its  attitudes  ?  Can 
anything  be  done  to  inform  and  organize  public  opinion,  not  to 
the  hindrance  or  discouragement  of  courtships,  but  to  the  com- 
munity supervision  of  them  ? 

7.  What  social  gatherings  have  the  men  and  women  of  the 
community?  Are  there  women's  clubs?  For  what  purposes? 
Are  these  clubs  constructive  social  movements,  or  are  they  per- 
sonal culture  clubs,  or  gossip  centers  ?  What  social  undertakings 
have  come  from  them  ?  What  social  programs  have  they,  if  any  ? 
If  none,  why  not  ?  Do  the  men  of  the  community  have  any  kinds 
of  social  gatherings?  Of  what  nature  and  for  what  purposes? 
What  influences  have  they  on  the  community?  Have  they  any 
sort  of  a  comprehensive  social  outlook  or  program  ? 

8.  What  has  been  done  toward  organizing  the  whole  social  life 
of  the  community  in  a  "social  center"  ?  What  are  the  activities 
of  this  center  ?  Does  it  meet  all  the  community  needs  ?  If  not, 
what  further  activities  should  be  undertaken  ?  If  nothing  of  this 
sort  has  been  done,  is  it  possible  to  undertake  it  ?  Can  the  schools 
be  counted  upon  to  work  for  the  general  community  life  ?  What 
attitudes  will  the  churches  take  toward  the  matter  ?  Where  can 
leaders  be  found  ?  What  are  the  social  conditions  that  need  or- 
ganizing on  a  higher  level?  To  what  extent  have  the  school- 
houses  been  used  in  the  past  for  social  gatherings?  Are  these 
buildings  adapted  to  social  uses  ?  Is  the  school  board  willing  to 
permit  the  buildings  to  be  used  for  social  purposes  ?  Do  the  laws 
of  the  state  permit  them  to  be  used?  Can  the  school  board  be 
converted  to  the  idea  of  the  wider  use  of  the  school  plant  ? 

(For  very  full  discussion  of  this  subject  see  book  by  Perry, 
listed  in  bibliography.) 

9.  What  is  being  done  in  the  direction  of  awakening  public 
interest  and  attention  to  the  questions  of  the  social  life  of  the  rural 
and  village  communities  ?  Is  there  a  "  Country  Life  Commission  " 
in  your  state  ?    What  is  it  doing  ?    Is  there  a  state-wide  program 


THE    GENERAL    SOCIAL   LIFE    OF   THE   COMMUNITY       141 

for  community  social  development?    What  part  has  your  com- 
munity in  it  ? 

10.  What  is  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  toward  the  community  ? 
Is  she  contented  in  the  community,  or  does  she  count  the  days 
until  she  can  get  into  a  larger  community  ?  What  is  the  minister's 
attitude  ?  Is  he  bringing  the  bread  of  life  to  the  community,  or 
is  he  bringing  the  message  of  death  by  his  lack  of  faith  in  the  com- 
munity? Are  the  educational  influences  of  the  community  such 
as  to  give  the  people  faith  in  their  own  efforts,  or  are  they  such 
as  to  break  down  community  self-respect  and  social  interest? 
What  can  be  done  to  bring  into  the  community  the  larger  con- 
structive interests  and  undertakings  necessary  to  make  the  life 
of  the  community  wholesome,  progressive,  inspiring,  and  broadly 
educative  for  all  the  boys  and  girls,  and  the  men  and  women  of 
all  ages  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Addams,  Jane.     The  Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Streets. 

Baldwin,  James  Mark.     The  Individual  and  Society. 

Brown,  L.  E.     The  Ideal  Boys'   Club.     (Write  to   the  author, 

Albany,  N.  Y.) 
Bloomfield,  Meyer.     The  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth. 
CooLEY,  C.  H.    Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order. 
Dewey,  John.     The  School  and  Society. 
Dewey,  John.    Moral  Principles  in  Education. 
FoRBUSH,  W.  B.     The  Boy  Problem. 
George,  William.     The  Junior  Republic. 
GuNCKEL,  John  E.    Boyville. 
Hyde,  W.  DeWitt.     The  Teachers'  Philosophy. 
Jenks,  J.  W.     Citizenship  and  the  Schools. 
King,  Irving.     The  Psychology  of  Child  Development. 
LeBon,  Gustave.     The  Crowd,  A  Study  of  the  Popular  Mind. 
Lee,  Joseph.    Constructive  and  Preventive  Philanthropy. 
Mangold,  G.  B.    Child  Problems. 


142  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

MuMFORD,  Eben.     The  Origins  of  Leadership. 

McCuNN,  John.    Making  of  Character. 

O'Shea,  M.  V.     Social  Development  and  Education. 
JPerry,  C.  a.     Wider  Use  of  the  School  Plant. 
[  Plunkett,  Sir  Horace.     The  Rural  Life  Problem  in  the  United 
States. 

Parsons,  Frank.     Choosing  a  Vocation. 

Reeder,  Rudolph.    How  Two  Hundred  Children  Live  and  Learn. 

Riis,  Jacob.     The  Children  of  the  Poor. 

Ross,  E.  A.     Social  Control. 

Ross,  E.  A.     Social  Psychology. 

Scott,  Colin  A.    Social  Education. 

SissoN,  E.  O.     The  Essentials  of  Character. 

Tarde,  Gabriel.    Social  Laws. 

Waters,  Robert.    Culture  hy  Conversation. 

Note. — Especial  attention  is  called  to  the  publications  of  the 
Social  Center  Association  of  America,  Madison,  Wis.  Full  in- 
formation concerning  books,  directions  for  social  work,  and  plans 
for  commimity  extension  may  be  secured  from  this  association. 


CHAPTER  XI 

RECREATION,    PLAY,  AND   AMUSEMENTS    IN 
THE  COMMUNITY 

Rural  life  consists  of  more  than  eating,  sleeping,  and 
working.  There  are  leisure  hours  for  most  adults  on 
Saturday  afternoons,  Sundays,  and  holidays,  after  eight 
o^clock  at  night,  and  for  several  hours  daily  in  winter. 
Most  children  have  much  more  leisure  than  this,  and  it 
is  during  these  hours  that  companionship  is  especially 
craved  and  that  something  besides  work  is  needed. 
"  Isolation  "  and  "  monotony  "  do  not  strike  in  during 
working  hours.  The  work  may  be  hard  and  irksome, 
and  may  bring  very  meager  financial  returns,  but  it  is 
no  more  monotonous  than  is  work  in  any  other  vocation. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  no  other  work  in  all  the  world  can 
be  more  interesting  or  so  all-absorbing  as  farming  by 
modern  methods.  And  where  properly  done  it  is  suffi- 
ciently remunerative  to  be  attractive.  It  is  not  the 
work  so  much  as  it  is  the  unsatisfied  cravings  and  the 
dreariness  of  the  leisure  hours  that  breeds  a  discontent 
which  annually  drives  multitudes  from  the  country 
to  seek  new  homes  and  broader  companionship  in  more 
populous  communities.  The  sentiment  seems  to  be 
everywhere  :  "  Anything  but  this.  How  can  I  get  away 
from  it?  " 

143 


144  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Yet  national  welfare  requires  that  this  point  of  view 
be  changed;  that  instead  of  seeking  opportunities  to 
leave  the  country,  people  will  ask :  "  How  can  we  make 
^nditions  so  attractive  that  we  shall  be  glad  to  stay?  " 
f  For  it  is  certain  that  farm  Ufe  nurtures  leaders  of  men, 
and  that  national  existence  depends  on  a  rural  popula- 
tion that  is  numerous,  prosperous,  and  contented. 

Now  while  a  full  and  frank  survey  of  rural  conditions 
would  reveal  discouraging  facts  almost  everywhere,  yet 
it  would  not  be  without  some  hopeful  features.  Indeed 
fwe  are  on  the  threshold  of  a  splendid  rural  renaissance. 
Better  methods  of  agriculture,  better  business  methods, 
and  more  cooperation  will  reHeve  the  economic  and  in- 
dustrial elements  of  the  situation,  while  a  quickened 
church,  an  improved  school,  and  a  richer  and  more  in- 
spiring community  life  will  lessen  the  suffering  from 
isolation  and  tend  to  check  the  rush  to  the  city. 

In  this  renaissance,  the  recreation  and  playground 
idea  will  make  itself  felt  as  a  powerful  factor,  and  it  is 
not  putting  it  too  strongly  to  say  that  a  well-planned 
propaganda  of  recreation  is  as  vital  a  necessity  to  the 
country's  welfare  as  is  improved  farming.  People  in 
towns,  villages,  and  in  the  open  country  need  more  rec- 
reation, and  they  need  training  in  the  arts  of  recreation 
and  amusement.  In  many  cases  their  quest  for  means 
of  occup3dng  leisure  hours  takes  crude,  uninteresting, 
and  even  childish  forms,  not  infrequently  is  rough  and 
grotesque,  and  altogether  too  often  leads  to  immorality 
to  a  degree  that  is  not  generally  suspected.     So  important 


THE  PLAY  LIFE  OF  THE  COMMUNITY       145 

is  this  matter  of  organized  recreation  that  it  must  be 
taken  up  by  the  rural  church,  the  school,  the  grange,  and 
other  fraternal  orders,  by  clubs  and  associations.  A 
splendid  example  is  set  by  the  Country  Work  depart- 
ment of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  whose 
secretaries  are  entering  heart  and  soul  into  the  move- 
ment with  most  encouraging  results. 

As  the  writer  has  pointed  out  again  and  again,  an 
adequate  program  of  play  would  include  pleasurable 
outdoor  and  indoor  occupation  for  {a)  homes,  {h)  day 
schools,  {c)  Sunday  schools,  {d)  other  social  organizations, 
public  and  private,  suitable  for  Sundays  as  well  as  for 
week  days,  adjusted  to  the  season  of  the  year,  and 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  (i)  verylittle  children,  (2)  children 
from  eight  to  thirteen,  (3)  boys  and  girls  in  the  adoles- 
cent period,  (4)  adults ;  sex  as  well  as  age  being  taken 
into  account  when  necessary.  The  word  play  thus 
broadened  brings  us  into  the  realm  of  kindergartens, 
manual  training  departments,  vacation  schools,  summer 
camps,  boys'  clubs,  girls'  clubs,  nature-study  clubs, 
camera  clubs,  collection  clubs ;  it  has  to  do  with  swim- 
ming, boating,  skating,  skeeing,  and  snowshoeing; 
also  with  all  forms  of  athletics ;  with  the  use  of  tools  and 
implements,  with  the  use  of  clay,  plasticine,  paper  pulp 
and  putty  for  modeling ;  with  the  use  of  tops  and  marbles, 
bean  bags,  balls  and  kites,  stilts,  toys,  soap  bubbles, 
cards,  dissected  maps,  scrap  books,  and  the  myriad 
other  amusements;  plays  and  games  which  are  the 
heritage  of  the  human  race,  and  without  sharing  in  which 


146  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

no  child  can  grow  up  into  complete  manhood  or  woman- 
hood, and  no  adult  can  live  a  cheerful,  joyous,  well- 
rounded-out  life.  A  fine  course  of  study  could  be  formed 
out  of  the  play  occupations  given  above,  a  course  that 
would  train  mind  as  well  as  body,  and  that  would  give 
the  best  kind  of  preparation  for  life's  serious  duties. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  learning  to  play  well  teaches 
us  how  to  work  well. 

The  following  indoor  recreational  activities  are  within 
the  reach  of  all : 

I.  Story-telling.  "  No  home  is  so  humble "  says 
Richard  T.  Wyche,  "  that  parents  cannot  gather  the 
children  around  the  fireside  on  a  winter's  evening,  or 
about  the  doorsteps  in  the  twilight  of  a  summer's  day 
and  tell  them  stories."  Here  is  an  art  that  should  be  cul- 
tivated. Grown  folks  like  stories,  too.  A  farmer  who 
usually  had  trouble  with  his  hired  help  because  they 
spent  too  much  of  their  leisure  time  at  the  village  bar- 
room, was  so  fortunate  once  as  to  get  a  man  who  had  a 
gift  for  story-telling.  As  long  as  this  man  was  on  the  farm 
he  entertained  the  others  so  well  that  the  bar  receipts  fell 
off  and  the  efficiency  of  the  men  increased.  Sitting 
around  with  their  pipes  and  hearing  him  spin  his  yarns 
was  a  kind  of  recreation  they  enjoyed. 

But  note  Mr.  Wyche's  suggestion  about  the  fireside. 
The  open  fireplace  can  work  social  wonders  if  people  will 
only  give  it  a  chance.  Lists  of  books  on  story-telling 
may  be  obtained  of  librarians  or  of  the  Playground 
Association  of  America. 


THE   PLAY   LITE    OF   THE   COMMUNITY  147 

2.  From  the  story  told  at  the  fireside  to  the  story  told 
on  a  stage  or  platform  before  an  audience  is  a  natural 
evolution.  Dramatic  societies  should  be  formed  in 
every  good  sized  community,  and  where  the  population 
is  scattered  several  communities  may  unite  to  form  one. 
We  are  only  beginning  to  sense  the  educational  value 
of  dramatization.  Yet  once  it  was  the  best  if  not  the 
only  way  to  spread  great  truths  amongst  the  people ;  for 
instance,  the  teaching  of  Biblical  events  and  characters 
by  the  mystery  and  miracle  plays  of  the  middle  ages. 
Note  the  results  of  an  active  village  dramatic  society 
in  Oberammergau,  Germany.  Largely  through  its  in- 
fluence there  has  been  developed  the  most  remarkable 
community  in  the  world,  a  little  village  in  a  remote  moun- 
tain district,  which  generation  after  generation  continues 
to  produce  gifted  men,  superb  women,  and  beautiful, 
wonderfully  beautiful,  children  in  extraordinary  numbers. 
Oberammergau  cannot  be  duplicated  elsewhere  perhaps, 
yet  properly  conducted  dramatics  will  greatly  enrich 
life  in  our  country  communities,  as  it  has  there. 

3.  Clubs  for  boys  and  girls  are  as  necessary  in  the 
country  as  in  the  city.  Besides  clubs  covering  particu- 
lar interests  like  photography,  nature  study,  Bible  study, 
etc.,  organizations  like  the  Boy  Scouts,  Campfire  Girls, 
Knights  of  King  Arthur  and  Pioneer  Girls  should  be 
fostered  and  supervised  by  adults.  Here  is  where  the 
country  pastor  may  exert  a  powerful  influence,  as  well 
as  the  country  teacher. 

4.  The  grange  and  other  fraternal  orders,  fire  com- 


148  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

panics,  literary  and  library  associations  furnish  club  life 
for  men  and  women,  and  in  these  the  recreation  idea 
may  well  be  emphasized.  To  such  organizations  the 
children  must  appeal  for  sympathy  and  help  in  their 
playground  propaganda. 

5.  Promoted  by  these  organizations,  communities 
should  maintain  lecture  and  entertainment  courses, 
reading  circles,  a  public  Hbrary,  and,  where  possible,  a 
choral  union.  Then  there  is  the  stereopticon  with  its 
wonderful  possibiHties.  No  community  or  group  of 
communities  should  be  without  one,  and  systematic 
provision  for  its  use  should  be  made.  The  old-fashioned 
husking  bees  and  bam  raisings  are  things  of  the  past 
in  all  but  a  few  communities,  but  why  not  bring  back  the 
spelling  match  and  the  singing  school  ? 

6.  Church,  school,  and  other  socials  should  pay  more 
intelligent  attention  to  their  programs  of  recreation. 
Social  evenings  frequently  are  uninteresting,  insipid,  and 
foolish  because  not  carefully  planned.  They  disgust 
and  alienate  instead  of  proving  attractive  and  inspiring. 
On  such  occasions  there  may  well  be  a  serious  core  to  the 
evening,  a  short  literary  and  musical  program,  for  in- 
stance, or  a  club  meeting  to  discuss  matters  of  commu- 
nity interest,  to  be  preceded  and  followed  by  plenty  of 
fun  and  amusement.  Well  thought  out  programs  of 
entertainment,  fun  and  recreation  for  all  sorts  of  gather- 
ings in  the  country  are  greatly  needed. 

7.  Township  or  country  gatherings,  extending  perhaps 
through  several  days,  have  been  successfully  maintained 


THE   PLAY  LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  1 49 

in  several  states.  Most  famous  of  these  is  the  Hesperia 
movement,  a  winter  gathering  of  Michigan  farmers  and 
teachers  which  has  met  for  years  in  Hesperia,  miles  from 
any  railway,  to  enjoy  a  program  of  lectures,  music,  and 
discussion  from  Thursday  night  to  Saturday  night. 
Mr.  D.  E.  McClure,  to  whom  most  of  the  credit  of  this 
meeting  must  be  given,  once  said,  "  Thousands  of  people 
have  been  inspired,  made  better,  at  the  Hesperia  meet- 
ings." Hesperia  with  its  powerful  appeal  to  the  craving 
for  wholesome  recreation,  certainly  has  induced  many 
to  stay  on  their  farms.  It  is  a  signal  instance  of  the  effi- 
cacy of  a  properly  conducted  "  Stay  on  the  Farm  Move- 
ment "  which  is  far  more  important  than  the  "  Back 
to  the  Farm  Movement." 

8.  Itinerant  social  and  literary  meetings  have  also 
proved  a  success.  Assembling  by  straw  load  or  by  walk- 
ing parties  on  a  given  Saturday,  bringing  their  lunch 
and  meeting  in  a  schoolhouse,  church,  or  village  hall, 
people  from  several  communities  may  gather  with  great 
profit  and  pleasure  several  times  a  year. 

9.  Systematic  effort  should  be  made  to  teach  plays 
and  games  to  children  and  to  instruct  them  in  the  art  of 
framing  up  programs  of  indoor  amusement.  Such  books 
as  Bancroft's  "  Games  for  the  Playground,  Home,  School, 
and  Gymnasium,"  the  Dan  Beard  Handy  Books, 
Nugent's  "New  Games  and  Amusements  "and  Johnson's 
"  Education  by  Plays  and  Games  "  should  be  owned  by 
every  school  and  church,  and  constantly  used.  Country 
children  do  not  play  enough  because  they  do  not  know 


150  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

enough  about  play.  Their  repertoire  of  games  is  exceed- 
ingly limited,  and  their  elders  are  even  worse  off  than  they 
are.  Hence  the  importance  of  systematic  effort  to  teach 
them  what  and  how  to  play.  The  splendid  work  already 
referred  to,  which  is  being  done  in  this  direction  by  some 
of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  county  work  secretaries,  who  actually 
have  gone  from  one  country  school  to  another  to  ask 
permission  to  teach  the  children  a  few  new  games,  is 
worthy  of  emulation. 

10.  Manual  training,  industrial  and  domestic  arts,  and 
nature  study  furnish  much  indoor  occupation  which 
has  high  recreational  value.  The  making  of  collections 
(stamps,  autographs,  eggs,  etc.)  should  be  encouraged. 
So  should  be  the  making  of  useful  articles  for  the  home 
or  school.  Manual  methods  in  Sunday  school  work 
are  also  decidedly  in  point  here. 

11.  What  has  so  far  been  said  suggests  the  importance 
of  having  in  connection  with  church,  school,  and  home 
a  definite  storeroom  or  place  for  play  and  recreation 
materials,  which  should  be  treated  with  the  same  dignity 
as  a  Hbrary  and  should  be  as  liberally  maintained  as  pos- 
sible. In  it  would  be  kept  not  only  the  toys  and  games, 
but  materials  for  constructing  various  articles,  drawing 
and  painting  materials,  costumes  which  have  been  used 
in  dramatics,  and  that  will  surely  come  in  handy  again 
some  day,  pictures,  projection  apparatus,  etc. 

Amongst  outdoor  recreational  activities  there  naturally 
come  to  mind  such  time-honored  sports  as  hunting, 
fishing,  and  camping  out.    It  would  be  a  good  idea  if 


THE   PLAY   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  151 

teachers  and  pastors  would  preach  the  doctrine  of  the 
outdoor  life,  and  if  every  community  had  a  few  tents, 
owned  perhaps  by  the  church  or  the  grange,  which  could 
be  loaned  to  those  who,  under  the  supervision  of  a  wise 
leader,  would  camp  in  the  woods  or  along  some  stream. 

Tramping  and  mountain  climbing  are  also  good  sport 
where  there  are  congenial  companions.  Europeans 
understand  the  value  of  such  recreations  far  better  than 
Americans  do. 

The  Boy  Scouts  and  Campfire  Girls  should  be  organ- 
ized everywhere,  and  here  again  comes  an  opportunity 
for  pastors  and  teachers  which  they  should  not  be  slow 
to  recognize.  The  Corn  Clubs  which  have  become  so 
popular  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  Tomato 
Clubs  of  the  South  have  also  high  recreational  value  and 
create  strong  community  spirit  and  local  allegiance. 

By  the  employment  of  such  socializing  agencies, 
country  life  will  be  made  more  attractive,  and  the  siren 
song  of  the  city  will  not  sound  half  so  sweet  to  our  rural 
youth. 

So  far  we  have  touched  on  the  more  informal  modes  of 
recreation,  the  equipment  for  which  is  the  world  about 
us  in  which  man  and  nature  are  playmates.  We  now 
come  to  that  still  greater  and  perhaps  more  important, 
certainly  more  social  field  of  recreation,  in  which  man 
plays  with  man,  combining  for  purposes  of  recreation  in 
numberless  forms  of  activity  which  when  properly 
organized  and  supervised,  develop  efficiency,  build  char- 
acter, and  often  fuse  discordant  elements  into  a  homo- 


152  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

geneous,  cooperating  mass.  In  this  more  specialized 
field  the  recreational  activities  center  at  the  playground, 
and  here  play  comes  to  be  recognized  as  one  of  the  most 
serious  and  important  concerns  of  life. 

One  of  the  best  things  ever  said  about  play  comes  from 
Mr.  Joseph  Lee,  whom  we  delight  to  honor  as  the  father 
of  the  modern  playground  movement  in  this  country. 
"  The  thing  that  most  needs  to  be  understood  about 
play,"  he  says,  "  is  that  it  is  not  a  luxury,  but  a  necessity  ; 
it  is  not  something  that  a  child  likes  to  have ;  it  is  some- 
thing that  he  must  have  if  he  is  to  grow  up.  It  is  more 
than  an  essential  part  of  his  education ;  it  is  an  essential 
part  of  the  law  of  his  growth,  of  the  process  by  which  he 
becomes  a  man  at  all."  All  this  is  true  for  the  country 
child  as  for  the  city  child. 

But  we  must  take  a  still  wider  view  of  outdoor  play 
and  regard  it  as  an  essential  for  adults  as  well  as  for  chil- 
dren. We  should  never  get  too  old  to  play,  and  since  it 
is  so  universally  important  we  must  undertake  seriously 
to  provide  adequate  play  and  recreation  facilities  for  all. 
Having  caught  the  wider  significance  of  the  playground 
idea  we  shall  come  to  recognize  that  the  organized  and 
supervised  playground  is  as  much  a  social  institution  as 
are  the  church  and  school. 

[  And  I  would  here  emphasize  as  I  have  elsewhere  that 
iplay  in  the  country  is  not  so  much  to  promote  health  as  to 
develop  the  higher  social  instincts,  to  introduce  another 
powerful  centripetal  factor  into  country  Hfe  which  will 
tend  to  counteract  the  expulsive  features  which  have  been 


THE   PLAY   LITE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  1 53 

SO  actively  depopulating  our  rural  districts.  A  very  j 
important  result  of  play  is  the  development  of  the  com- / 
munity  spirit  so  seriously  lacking  in  country  districts/ 
There  seems  to  be  so  little  to  hold  the  people  together. 
But  once  interest  children  in  play,  get  them  to  organize 
teams ;  design  and  make  a  good  school  banner,  compose 
and  learn  a  school  cheer,  adopt  a  distinctive  athletic 
costume  or  even  a  celluloid  button  which  is  to  be  worn 
when  they  go  to  the  next  great  play  festival  and  compete 
with  other  schools,  and  there  will  be  no  lack  of  community 
spirit  so  far  as  the  children  are  concerned,  and  the  adult 
population  will  soon  be  catching  something  of  it  too. 

In  country  places  playgrounds  will  have  to  come,  if 
they  come  at  all,  through  the  generosity  of  some  individ- 
ual or  club,  or  on  the  initiative  of  some  organization  hke 
a  powerful  school  or  college,  or  wide-awake  church,  or 
the  County  Work  department  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  And 
they  are  actually  coming  in  considerable  numbers  and 
in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  everywhere  they  produce 
the  same  social  results;  that  is,  they  bring  about  fine 
community  spirit,  awaken  civic  consciousness,  and  co- 
operation, and  make  for  a  whole-souled  companionship 
instead  of  for  individuaHsm  and  isolation.  If  we  can  see 
the  playground  idea  prevail  throughout  the  rural  com- 
munities of  the  land,  the  gain  to  the  nation  through  the 
ever  increasing  number  of  cheerful,  contented,  indus- 
trious, patriotic  citizens  will  be  far  greater  than  if  mines 
of  fabulous  wealth  were  uncovered  or  all  the  commerce 
of  the  world  were  brought  under  our  flag. 


154  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Regular,  supervised  play  should  begin  at  the  home, 
and  how  fortunate  the  children  who  have  parents  who 
are  in  sympathy  with  play  and  who  will  occasionally 
find  time  to  play  with  their  children!  Sand  pile,  swings, 
and  other  inexpensive  apparatus  are  easily  provided, 
and  so  are  the  chinning  bar,  jumping  pit,  and  running 
course. 

The  same  is  true  at  the  school,  even  the  one  room 
school.  Helpful  literature  is  now  available  for  those  who 
are  willing  to  take  up  this  work.  The  country  road  will 
have  to  be  pressed  into  service  for  some  of  the  activities, 
but  every  school  should  have  ample  grounds,  laid  out 
and  equipped  for  such  games  as  volley  ball,  badminton, 
prisoner's  base,  captain  ball,  baseball  or  playground  ball 
(the  latter  requiring  much  less  space  than  the  former), 
relay  races,  etc.  Marbles  and  kite  flying  should  be  en- 
couraged, and  so  should  Red  Rover,  leapfrog,  duck  on 
the  rock,  moving  statues,  and  a  hundred  other  games 
that  are  readily  learned. 

Folk  dancing  should  be  revived  in  the  country  as  it 
has  been  in  the  city.  Here  again  manuals  of  instruction 
are  ready. 

Teachers,  pastors,  and  play  leaders  may  make  use  of 
excursions,  picnics,  and  camping  expeditions  as  suggested 
above,  but  in  addition  to  these,  national  holidays  and 
other  special  occasions  may  be  observed  by  holding 
pageants.  There  is  already  a  generous  literature  on 
this  subject  which  may  be  reached  through  the  Play- 
ground and  Recreation  Association  of  America.     The 


THE  PLAY  LIFE  OF  THE  COMMUNITY       1 55 

pageant  idea  for  country  communities  has  been  best 
worked  out  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Langdon  at  Thetford,  Ver- 
mont. His  pamphlet  "  The-  Pageant  of  Thetford " 
is  a  classic  in  the  literature  of  recreation. 

An  essential  phase  of  playground  activity  is  athletics. 
These  cannot  be  elaborate,  of  course,  but  if  even  in  simple 
form  the  teacher  feels  unequal  to  the  task,  perhaps  the 
country  pastor  could  help,  or  some  other  adult  in  the 
community.  If  not,  a  call  on  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  County 
Work  Secretary,  if  fortunately  one  is  in  the  district,  will 
not  be  without  results.  As  has  been  said  above,  these 
young  men  are  ready  to  do  all  they  can  to  promote  this 
work. 

The  most  important  factor  in  promoting  play  in  the  ' 
country  is  the  Field  Day  and  Play  Picnic,  the  great  day 
of  the  year,  when  the  country  schools  of  the  district  or 
county  meet  at  some  central  point  and  pass  the  day  in 
play.  Since  the  first  Field  Day  of  this  sort  was  started 
by  the  writer  in  a  little  village  in  New  York  State  some 
seven  years  ago,  the  idea  has  spread  very  generally 
through  the  country,  and  it  may  be  said  that  the  Field 
Day  and  Play  Picnic  has  become  an  important  rural 
institution.     Its  main  features  are  as  follows  : 

A  Country  School  Athletic  League  is  organized  among 
the  schools  of  a  county  or  commissioner's  district  to  foster 
all  kinds  of  clean  athletics  among  country  children,  to 
teach  them  and  their  teachers  outdoor  and  indoor  games, 
and  to  bring  the  schools  together  at  least  once  a  year  in 
a  great  field  day  and  play  picnic.    For  purposes  of  in- 


156  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

struction,  circular  letters  giving  lists  of  books  on  games 
and  athletics,  and  other  important  particulars  are  sent 
to  all  teachers  and  pastors,  while  a  number  of  games  like 
prisoner's  base,  captain  ball,  and  some  relay  races  are 
published  with  illustrative  cuts  in  village  papers  and  sent 
broadcast  throughout  the  county.  To  further  aid  the 
play  propaganda  volunteers  are  sent  to  the  country 
schools  to  teach  games  and  to  help  with  the  local  athletic 
and  badge  contests.  The  matter  is  also  presented  at 
granges,  institutes,  and  pubHc  meetings  by  aid  of  the 
stereopticon. 

Individual  schools  are  encouraged  to  organize  relay 
teams,  and  teams  to  play  prisoner's  base,  baseball,  and 
other  group  games,  and  to  compete  with  other  schools. 
Individual  schools  are  encouraged  to  have  their  own  field 
days,  while  groups  of  three  or  four  schools  are  urged  to 
have  an  annual  meet. 

The  grounds  for  the  play  festival,  large  enough  to 
accommodate  several  thousand  people,  are  proportioned 
off  into  several  play  areas.  In  one  place  there  are  courts 
for  prisoner's  base,  captain  ball,  bean  bag,  toss,  basket 
ball  throw,  and  so  on ;  another  area  is  set  aside  for  base- 
ball or  playground  ball ;  still  another  is  devoted  to  giant 
strides,  playground  slides,  merry-go-rounds,  and  swings ; 
nets  are  also  stretched  for  volley  ball,  tennis,  and  badmin- 
ton, pits  are  dug  for  jumping,  courses  marked  out  for 
running  and  racing,  a  range  laid  out  for  archery,  and 
many  an  interesting  game  or  contrivance  for  testing 
skill  or  otherwise  affording  amusement  is  at  hand  here 


THE   PLAY   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  1 57 

and  there  to  attract  little  groups  of  children,  who  wander 
about  all  day  long  in  perfect  delight  from  one  interesting 
occupation  to  another. 

Provision  is  made  for  checking  the  packages  and 
lunches  of  the  thousands  of  guests,  while  water  and  toilet 
accommodations  must  be  carefully  and  generously 
planned.  Tents  must  be  set  up  for  those  who  are  to  sell 
frankfurters,  sandwiches,  ice  cream,  and  soft  drinks. 

An  important  feature  of  the  occasion  is  the  day 
nursery,  consisting  of  one  or  more  tents,  furnished  with 
cots,  kindergarten  tables,  and  play  materials,  a  sand  pile 
just  outside  the  door,  and  appropriate  eatables,  which 
may  well  include  sterilized  milk  in  bottles,  for  the  infants. 
Here  mothers  may  check  their  babies  free  of  charge, 
leaving  them  in  competent  care  while  they  themselves 
spend  the  hours  in  joyous  freedom. 

Carefully  prepared  programs  are  printed  and  freely 
distributed  and  trained  play  leaders  are  at  hand  to  teach 
children  and  adults  how  to  play,  and  to  supervise  the 
activities  of  the  day. 

Balloon  ascensions  and  other  imported  amusements 
and  spectacles  are  strictly  excluded,  for  this  is  a  day  of 
play  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people. 
Thousands  come  to  these  occasions,  and  we  want  these 
thousands  to  play  and  not  merely  to  be  amused  by  hired 
performers. 

At  one  of  these  festivals  "It  is  well  worth  while  to 
stand  at  a  place  of  vantage  and  watch  these  thousands 
assemble  from  every  direction  intent  upon  play,  some  by 


158  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

train,  many  on  foot  and  horseback,  and  hundreds  by 
wagon,  caravans  which  wind  their  way  from  neighbor- 
ing villages  and  farms.  Sometimes  an  entire  district 
school  comes  to  town  on  a  hay  wagon,  with  flags  and 
banners  flying  and  with  its  school  cheer  frequently  in 
evidence.  Just  think  for  a  moment  what  this  means  to 
that  school.  It  shows  that  cooperation,  fellow  feehng, 
school  spirit,  community  loyalty,  and  kindred  virtues 
have  been  born  into  the  pupils'  lives,  and  that  perhaps 
for  the  first  time  in  their  experience  the  social  forces  of 
country  life  have  become  centripetal  and  attractive  in- 
stead of  centrifugal  and  expulsive." 

It  should  be  emphasized  that  a  play  festival  is  not 
just  for  fun ;  it  is  not  merely  to  while  away  leisdire  time ; 
it  is  not  a  mere  picnic.  The  latter  has  its  value  and  is 
not  to  be  decried,  but  it  usually  grows  out  of  no  special 
purpose  other  than  to  have  a  pleasing  outing,  and  it 
exercises  no  permanent  influence.  The  play  festival, 
on  the  other  hand,  like  the  ancient  festivals  and  feast 
days  which  are  made  familiar  to  us  through  the  Bible, 
is  of  purposeful  intent  and  has  an  important  mission 
to  perform.  Of  course  it  consists  largely  of  play,  and  one 
of  its  chief  ends  is  the  providing  of  amusement.  But 
preparation  for  this  day  of  pleasure  represents  months 
of  effort  on  the  part  of  hundreds  and  thousands  of 
children  and  adults,  and  a  great  many  by-products 
have  resulted  which  are  of  priceless  value. 

Take  the  schools  for  instance,  —  that  is,  those  that 
are  fortunate  enough  to  be  imder  the  leadership  of  a 


THE   PLAY   LIFE    OF   THE   COMMUNITY  1 59 

good  teacher.  In  getting  ready  to  play  their  part  in  the 
events  of  the  day  the  pupils  become  more  closely  or- 
ganized, work  of  all  kinds  has  been  better  done,  school 
spirit  has  been  developed,  and  physical  health  has  been 
promoted  by  participation  in  games  and  athletics.  The 
school  has  become  socialized. 

Then,  too,  at  the  festival  the  children  may  measure 
their  accomplishments  with  those  of  children  from  other 
schools  and  find  out  just  what  are  their  strong  and  weak 
points. 

Then  later  the  effect  on  individual  lives.  Acquaint- 
ances formed  on  these  occasions  may  be  followed  up  by 
profitable  correspondence,  by  exchanging  visits,  and 
thus  lead  to  the  establishment  of  Hfelong  friendships. 
The  names  of  those  who  excel  in  one  sport  or  another 
become  household  words  throughout  the  coimtry.  How 
this  stimulates  self-respect  and  ambition!  The  real 
leaders  in  each  community  become  known,  be  they  boys 
or  girls,  men  or  women,  and  these  may  be  brought  to- 
gether thereafter  for  organized  efforts  in  worthy  enter- 
prises for  the  common  good.  And  all  the  time  the 
isolation  of  country  life  is  being  lessened. 

Again,  how  easily  may  new  and  desirable  features  be 
introduced  into  a  school  or  a  commimity  by  these  fes- 
tivals, and  what  an  opportunity  they  afford  for  getting 
children  to  do  the  old  things  in  the  spirit  of  a  new  com- 
prehension and  from  a  broader  point  of  view.  For  in- 
stance, if  play  festivals  become  permanent  institutions 
in  a  country  and  it  is  known  that  there  will  always  be 


l6o  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

competitive  athletics  and  games,  then  running  and  jump- 
ing, prisoner's  base,  relay  races,  and  so  on,  will  become 
permanent  features  in  the  physical  lives  of  the  children 
who  are  within  the  radius  of  the  festival's  influence. 
If  on  such  days  there  are  events  which  may  be  partici- 
pated in  by  only  boys'  clubs,  then  boys'  clubs  can 
thereafter  be  easily  organized  and  maintained  with 
incalculable  benefit  throughout  the  year.  If  there  is  to  be 
maintained  a  competitive  exhibit  of  home-made  bread 
and  cake  in  one  of  the  booths  on  the  festival  grounds, 
then  will  it  be  easy  to  get  the  girls  to  give  careful  atten- 
tion to  the  art  of  baking.  If  a  corn-Judging  or  vegetable 
contest  is  to  be  held,  then  corn  patches  and  home  gardens 
will  multiply  and  flourish.  If  an  exhibit  of  photographs, 
programs,  and  printed  matter  showing  the  operations 
of  men's  clubs,  women's  clubs,  Bible  study  circles,  or 
literary  societies  should  be  made,  with  an  intelligent 
person  at  hand  to  answer  questions  and  give  explana- 
tions, then  will  such  organizations  be  likely  to  make  their 
appearance  in  one  community  after  another  throughout 
the  country.  If  there  is  to  be  an  exhibit  of  school  work 
in  one  of  the  tests,  then  all  through  the  year  the  children 
will  give  more  attention  to  the  three,  while  sewing, 
gardening,  bench  work,  carving,  basketry,  and  art  will 
find  a  deservedly  prominent  place  in  an  increasing  num- 
ber of  schools  and  homes. 

Perhaps  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  through  a  series 
^.  of  properly  conceived  and  well-conducted  festivals  the 
.  civic  and  institutional  Hfe  of  an  entire  county  or  district. 


THE   PLAY   LIFE   OF    THE   COMMUNITY  l6l 

and  the  lives  of  many  individuals  of  all  ages,  may  be 
permanently  quickened  and  inspired,  the  play  move- 
ment thus  making  surely  for  greater  contentment,  cleaner 
morals,  and  more  intense  patriotism  and  righteousness 
on  the  farm  lands  and  in  the  village  populations  of  our 
country.  Such,  indeed,  are  the  sociaHzing  effects  of  or- 
ganized and  supervised  play. 

M.  T.  S. 

SURVEY   OF^  COMMUNITY  RECREATION 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  recreational  activities  of  rural  communities 
which  have  come  under  your  personal  observation.  Tabulate 
them  as  (a)  indoor  and  (b)  outdoor,  and  indicate  which  are  whole- 
some and  which  are  bad. 

2.  To  what  extent  and  in  what  ways  are  the  church  and  the 
pastor  interested  in  the  recreation  of  the  people  ?  The  school  and 
the  teachers?  The  grange?  Other  organizations?  The  men 
of  the  community  ?    The  women  ?    The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  ? 

3.  To  what  extent  is  adequate  and  wholesome  recreation  pro- 
vided in  the  homes  ? 

4.  What  provisions  for  recreational  activities  are  made  through 
(a)  libraries  ?  (b)  lecture  and  entertainment  courses  ?  (c)  clubs 
for  adults?  {d)  clubs  for  boys  and  girls,  literary,  nature,  com, 
tomato,  etc.  ?  (e)  Boy  Scouts  ?  (/)  Campfire  Girls,  or  other  girl 
counterpart  of  the  Boy  Scouts  ?     (g)  dramatics  ?    (h)  music  ? 

5.  What  provision  is  made  for  athletics  for  boys  ?  girls  ?  adults  ? 

6.  What  provision  is  made  for  wholesome  recreation  for  farm 
hands  ?  in  mining  and  lumber  camps  ?  for  seafaring  people  when 
in  harbor? 

7.  What  cases  of  immoraHty  have  arisen  from  the  recreations  of 
young  men  and  women  ? 

8.  What  festivals,  pageants,  celebrations  of  special  days,  etc., 
are  held  ? 

M 


1 62  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

9.  What  instances  of  street  fairs  in  villages  do  you  know  of,  and 
what  is  their  influence  ? 

10.  To  what  extent  are  card  games  and  public  dances  prevalent, 
and  what  are  their  effects  ? 

11.  What  efforts  are  being  made  to  supervise  and  give  moral 
direction  to  recreational  activities  (a)  by  individuals?  (b) 
by  town  or  school  officials?  (c)  by  interested  parties  from  out- 
side? 

1 2 .  What  efforts  have  been  made  to  promote  camping,  mountain 
climbing,  tramping,  water  sports  ? 

13.  What  antisocial  forms  of  play  or  amusements  are  found  in 
the  community  ?    Is  there  any  public  conscience  on  these  matters  ? 

14.  What  are  the  schools  doing  in  the  way  of  promoting  the 
educational  values  of  play  ?  Is  there  any  cooperation  between  the 
schools  and  the  play  activities  of  the  community  ? 

15.  Are  there  any  prejudices  against  play  and  amusements  in 
the  community  ? 

16.  Is  the  play  of  the  community  really  a  constructive  element 
in  the  life  of  the  community  ?    If  not,  why  not  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  AND  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY 

Arnold,     E.     H.    Gymnastic    Games    Classified,  $0.75.     (Pub. 
privately  at  New  Haven,  1901.) 

Contents  are  classified  according  to  the  physical  and  mental 
qualities  which  each  game  tends  to  develop.  The  first  classifica- 
tion is  of  games  without  purpose,  the  last  of  organized  games, 
such  as  ball  games,  hockey,  Chinese  wall,  etc. ;  the  intervening 
classifications  are:  general  imitation,  sense  apparatus,  accuracy 
of  motion,  steadiness  of  motion,  accurate  imitation,  simple  re- 
action, discrimination,  judgment. 

Bancroft,  Jessie  H.    Games  for  the  Playground,  Home,  School, 
and  Gymnasium. 

The  games  in  this  book  have  been  collected  from  many  sources 


THE   PLAY   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  1 63 

and  countries.    It  is,  as  set  forth  in  the  introduction,  a  practical 
guide  for  the  player  of  games,  whether  child  or  adult,  for  all  seasons 
of  the  year  in  both  indoor  and  outdoor  environment. 
Beard,  Daniel  C.     The  American  Boy's  Handy  Book;   or  What 
to  do  and  how  to  do  it.  ^-^" 

A  book  teeming  with  clear-cut  directions  for  constructing  many 
things  dear  to  the  heart  of  a  boy,  as  well  as  ideas  for  indoor  and 
outdoor  amusements. 
Beard,  Daniel  C.    Outdoor  Handy  Book. 

An  excellent  book  of  outdoor  games  and  pastimes ;  full  instruc- 
tions are  given  for  making  the  necessary  equipment  for  the  sports 
described,  such  as  boating,  swimming,  fishing,  camping,  sledding, 
and  many  others. 
Beard,  Lina  and  Adelia  B.     The  American  Girl's  Handy  Book. 

This  book  is  excellent  for  aiding  girls  to  amuse  themselves  by 
constructing  things  of  interest  to  them ;  gives  suggestions  for  many 
kinds  of  entertainment ;   describes  outdoor  and  indoor  games  for 
girls. 
Beard,  Lina  and  Adelia  B.    Recreations  for  Girls. 

Many  ways  and  means  are  described  for  amusing  girls  through 
handwork.     Entertainments  for  special  occasions  are  given  with 
a  considerable  amount  of  suggestion  for  original  plans. 
BuRCHENALL,  E.     Folk  Dances  and  Singing  Games. 

Book  of  folk  dances  from  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Russia, 
Hungary,  Italy,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  England,  with  music. 
Boy  Scouts'  Manual.     Published  by  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America. 

Fifth  Ave.  Bldg.,  N.  Y.    $0.25. 
Camp  fire  Girls  of  America  Manual.    Pub.  at  118  East  28th  St., 

N.Y.    $0.25. 
Champlin,  John  D.     Young  Folks'  Cyclopedia  of  Games  and  Sports. 

A  compendium  of  recreation  of  all  kinds.  Adults  as  well  as 
children  will  find  it  valuable  for  plays  and  games,  athletic  sports, 
mechanical  and  chemical  experiments,  as  well  as  for  definitions  of 
terms  apphcable  to  the  subjects  in  hand. 


1 64  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

HoFER,  Mari  Ruef.  Children's  Singing  Games  Old  and  New;  for 
Vacation  School  Playgrounds,  School  Yards,  Kinder  gar  tens  ^ 
and  Primary  Grades.     (Chicago.) 

Such  games  as  London  Bridge,  the  Muffin  Man,  Itiskit  Itasket, 
are  found  in  this  collection. 
Johnson,  George  E.    Education  by  Plays  and  Games. 

The  first  part  of  this  book  is  a  discussion  of  the  subject ;   the 
second  part  is  a  series  of  games  judiciously  graded  for  progressive 
use. 
Leland,  Arthur.    Playground  Technique. 

An  invaluable  book  for  all  who  are  interested  in  play.  It  con- 
tains many  suggestions  for  play  and  the  construction  of  home- 
made apparatus. 

Nugent,  Meredith.  New  Games  and  Amusements  for  Young  and 
Old  Alike. 

Mr.  Nugent  creates  for  the  boy  of  ten  a  magic  world.    The  book 
contains  wonderful   soap  bubble  tricks,  how  to   engineer  yacht 
races  in  the  clouds,  how  to  make  a  circus  on  kite  string,  and  other 
wonderful  things. 
Schaefer,  W.  G.    Games  for  the  Schools  and  Gymnasia. 

The  aim  of  the  compiler  has  been  to  present  a  series  of  games 
that  require  very  simple  apparatus;   many  of  the  games  require 
only  space  for  successful  playing.    Diagrams  in  many  cases  ac- 
company the  descriptions. 
ScuDDER,  M.  T.    Recreation  for  Rural  Communities. 

After  a  brief  discussion  of  the  social  and  economic  conditions 
in  rural  districts  with  special  reference  to  the  expulsive  tendencies 
of  isolation  and  of  unsatisfied  social  instincts,  the  author  dwells 
upon  the  socializing  influences  of  play  and  recreation  in  the  lives 
of  adults  as  well  as  of  the  young,  and  points  out  the  responsibility 
of  the  several  rural  institutions,  home,  church,  school  community, 
fraternal  organizations,  etc.,  in  promoting  a  propaganda  of  recrea- 
tion. Rich  programs  of  play  and  recreation  are  outlined,  upwards 
of  200  games  are  described,  and  strong  emphasis  is  placed  on  festi- 


THE  PLAY  LIFE  OF  THE  COMMUNITY       1 65 

vals,  play  picnics,  pageants,  county  fairs,  and  social  center  activ- 
ities. 
Spalding's  Athletic  Library. 

This  library  consists  of  a  large  number  of  booklets,  ten  cents 
per  copy,  which  cover  nearly  every  form  of  athletics  and  games. 
Those  interested  should  send  for  a  catalog.     Address  Spalding 
Bros.,  Nassau  Street,  New  York.    The  following  are  of  special 
importance  in  rural  recreation. 
Chesley's  Indoor  and  Outdoor  Gymnastic  Games. 
Gulick's  Official  Handbook  of  the  Public  Schools  Athletic  League. 
Official  Handbook  of  Girls^  Branch  of  the  Public  Schools  Athletic 

Leagtie. 
Playground  Ball. 
Official  Indoor  Baseball  Guide. 
Official  Soccer  Football  Guide. 
Official  Baseball  Guide. 


CHAPTER  XII 

MORAL  AND  SOCIAL  DEFICIENCIES  OF 
THE   COMMUNITY 

Each  condition  of  life  has  its  strength  and  its  weakness, 
its  elements  of  beauty  and  of  ugliness.  While  much  has 
been  written,  wisely,  about  the  attractive  features  of 
country  life,  one  who  expects  to  make  the  rural  com- 
munity his  home  and  who  hopes  to  understand  and  aid 
its  growth  must  also  face  the  fact  that  there  are  dark 
spots  as  well  as  bright  ones  in  the  field  before  him.  Not 
all  rural  regions  show  the  same  weakness  any  more  than 
all  cities  show  the  same  efficiency.  But  whatever  the 
community,  it  is  well  to  have  in  mind  the  possible  social 
dangers  in  order  to  meet  them  wisely  if  they  are  found 
to  exist. 

It  is  a  common  saying  that  the  social  evils  of  rural 
life  are  due  to  isolation.  The  city  has  its  problems  of 
congestion,  while  the  country  problem  is  the  outgrowth 
of  isolation.  Evil  phases  of  social  life  are  frequently 
the  result  of  the  massing  of  too  many  people  for  fit  con- 
ditions of  existence,  but  they  may  equally  follow  from 
the  fact  of  too  scant  or  feeble  a  population  for  vigorous 
and  aggressive  thought  and  action.  There  are  rural  as 
well  as  city  "  slums,"  and  each  is  harmful  in  its  own  way. 

The  danger  of  isolation,  on  the  mental  side,  arises 
from  lack  of  the  contact  of  minds.     It  is  in  conversation, 

i66 


MORAL   AND    SOCIAL  DEFICIENCIES  1 67 

discussion,  the  exchange  of  ideas,  the  stimulus  of  com- 
mon emotions  and  purposes,  that  the  imagination  flour- 
ishes and  the  mind  develops.  And  so  it  often  results, 
in  rural  life,  that  the  fact  of  the  failure  to  bring  people 
together  breeds  a  group  of  sterile  minds.  The  narrow- 
ness and  intellectual  decay  of  some  country  neighbor- 
hoods is  a  natural  consequence.  The  great  need  is  to 
break  up  the  isolation ;  to  bring  the  members  of  a  com- 
munity to  realize  that  they  really  are  a  community,  not 
scattered  individuals. 

Even  more  important  than  the  mental  consequences 
of  isolation  are  the  moral  results.  Every  region  which 
has  not  developed  some  adequate  forms  of  community 
life  exhibits  these  characteristics.  Suspiciousness  takes 
the  place  of  kindHness.  Fault  finding,  bickering,  and 
quarrels  are  the  outgrowth  of  this  unsocialized  life.  The 
family  feuds  of  many  country  neighborhoods  are  often 
the  expression  of  nothing  but  the  emptiness  of  the  life 
which  has  no  common  purposes  and  no  common  emotions 
and  enthusiasms.  It  is  the  empty  mind  which  broods 
upon  little  ills  till  they  become  great  and  are  so  firmly 
fixed  that  they  cannot  be  dislodged. 

There  is,  moreover,  a  type  of  character  which  flourishes 
in  isolation  and  is  intensified  by  it.  This  is  the  selfish, 
individualistic  character;  and  as  a  consequence  many 
rural  regions  exhibit  an  imusual  degree  of  that  lawless- 
ness which  is  the  outgrowth  of  unwillingness  to  permit 
any  interference  with  individual  wishes.  Extravagant 
individualism  is  usually  insubordinate  and  lawless.    It 


1 68  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

is  hostile  to  social  restraint  and  often  lacking  in  self- 
control.  In  some  places  and  under  some  conditions  this 
leads  almost  to  a  return  to  savagery  in  the  way  and  the 
degree  in  which  men  follow  their  uncontrolled  impulses 
in  disregard  of  all  social  customs  and  regulations.  The 
restraining  influence  of  social  life,  common  understand- 
ings and  ideas  of  order,  are  scoffed  at,  the  result  being  a 
rowdyism  which  may  be  merely  rudeness,  but  often  be- 
comes drunken,  vicious,  or  immoral. 

To  offset  such  conditions  the  great  need  is  for  easy 
and  frequent  forms  of  social  intercourse.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  develop  the  ascendency  of  society  over  the 
individual,  to  create  a  social  atmosphere  which  shall  be 
a  restraining  as  well  as  stimulating  influence.  This  is 
but  to  say  that  in  the  country  if  a  man  wants  to  live 
in  a  good  neighborhood  he  must  be  interested  in  the 
making  of  varied  social  institutions  and  arrangements 
through  which  neighborliness  may  be  exercised.  One 
who  enters  such  a  community  should  ask  such  questions 
as  these :  What  are  the  neighborhood  institutions,  and 
are  they  alive  or  dead?  Is  there  a  church  or  are  there 
perhaps  half  a  dozen  churches  fighting  each  other  in 
the  name  of  the  religion  instead  of  fighting  the  evils  of 
isolated  living  by  stimulating  social  purposes  and  aspira- 
tions? Is  the  school  a  place  in  which  children  are 
taught  the  elements  of  language  and  numbers,  or  is  it 
also  a  community  center  where  parents  and  children, 
old  and  young,  meet  for  pleasure  and  entertainment, 
for  athletic   games   and   contests,   for   discussion   and 


MORAL  AND    SOCIAL  DEFICIENCIES  1 69 

intellectual  inquiry,  for  interchange  of  ideas,  and  the 
development  of  kindly  interest  in  each  other?  Is  there 
a  grange  or  other  agricultural  organization,  and  does  it 
encourage  interest  in  scientific  agriculture,  in  cooperative 
undertakings  of  an  economic  sort  for  the  increase  of 
the  community's  wealth  and  prosperity?  It  is  upon 
such  social  interests  as  these  that  we  must  rely  to 
counteract  the  mental  and  moral  evils  of  the  isolation 
of  the  country  life. 

There  is  another  phase  of  isolation  which  must  be 
reckoned  with.  Young  people  are  frequently  thrown  in 
contact  with  men  and  women  of  immoral  imagination 
and  speech,  and  this  is  more  difficult  to  guard  against 
than  in  the  city  because  country  associations  are  more 
intimate  and  more  inevitable,  choice  being  much  more 
Kmited.  Hired  help  becomes  a  part  of  the  family  life, 
frequently  of  necessity,  and  may  be  an  evil  influence  of 
this  sort ;  or  a  few  evil-minded  young  people  may  con- 
taminate a  whole  neighborhood.  To  substitute  for  such 
vicious  mental  suggestion  an  interest  in  better  farming, 
in  athletics,  or  in  any  other  wholesome  and  stimulating 
exercise  of  energy  is  a  task  worth  the  greatest  effort  and 
not  impossible  of  success. 

Among  the  social  phenomena  which  have  attracted 
the  attention  of  observers  is  the  fact  that  marriages  are 
made  at  an  earlier  age  in  the  country  than  the  city. 
This  is  probably  due  in  part  to  the  greater  economic 
unity  of  the  rural  as  compared  with  the  city  family,  a 
wife  being  of  special  economic  importance  to  the  farmer ; 


170  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

but  in  part  also  to  the  lack  of  variety  in  mental  interests 
which  leads  the  young  to  settle  down  at  an  early  age  in 
the  family  social  group.  This  is  not  a  disadvantage,  but 
at  the  same  time  suggests  the  danger  that  many  mar- 
riages will  be  contracted,  not  because  of  strong  attach- 
ment, but  through  the  sheer  poverty  of  other  normal 
healthy  interests.  It  suggests  the  great  need  for  wise 
instruction  upon  the  meaning  of  marriage  and  what 
should  determine  it. 

Another  social  condition  to  which  attention  must  be 
called  is  the  fact  that  many  minds  are  unable  to  endure 
the  monotony  so  often  characteristic  of  rural  life,  so  that 
insanity  and  suicide  are  consequences  to  be  reckoned 
with.  While  the  suicide  rate  is  usually  higher  for  the 
city  than  the  country,  the  proportion  of  suicides  over 
sixty-five  years  is  greater  for  the  rural  region  than  for 
cities  in  the  United  States;  which  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate the  great  strain  upon  the  mind  of  long-continued 
isolation  and  monotony.  Fortunately  modern  forms  of 
communication  are  overcoming  this  monotony  in  some 
degree.  The  farm  is  not  so  lonely  as  it  used  to  be. 
Books,  magazines,  newspapers,  mail,  telephone,  and 
now  trolley  lines  and  often  automobiles  bring  the  farm 
life  in  touch  with  all  that  is  happening  in  other  parts  of 
the  world.  But  isolation  breeds  ignorance  and  igno- 
rance in  turn  makes  for  isolation,  even  when  it  might  be 
avoided;  and  so  there  is  still  the  superlative  need  to 
organize  agencies  of  social  intercourse  which  shall  bring 
neighbors  together  in  healthful  ways. 


MORAL   AND    SOCIAL  DEFICIENCIES  171 

Rural  communities  often  illustrate  the  extreme  social 
danger  of  a  vicious  heredity.  Due  at  times  to  the 
migration  to  the  city  of  the  more  vigorous  youth,  or  at 
other  times  to  lack  of  aggressive  competition  from 
stronger  stock  because  of  the  poverty  of  the  soil  or  its 
distance  from  competitive  centers,  there  frequently  is 
found  in  rural  communities  an  excess  of  degenerate  or 
defective  human  stock.  Such  regions  become  breeding 
places  for  the  many  forms  of  feeble-mindedness.  Idiocy, 
imbecihty,  epilepsy,  and  other  inherited  mental  weak- 
nesses, issuing  in  crime,  pauperism,  or  alcoholism,  are 
fostered  and  handed  on.  As  Dr.  Davenport  says :  "  In 
the  rural  and  semirural  population  within  a  hundred 
miles  of  our  great  cities  we  find  a  disproportion  of  the 
indolent,  the  alcoholic,  the  feeble-minded,  the  ne'er-do- 
well.  I  know  intimately  several  such  locations  and  have 
seen,  in  one  family  after  another,  how  the  ambitious 
youth  leave  the  parental  roof  tree  to  try  their  fortunes  in 
the  city,  while  the  weakest  young  men  stay  behind,  sup- 
ported by  their  parents,  or  earning  only  enough  to  buy 
the  liquor  their  defective  natures  crave,  and  are  finally 
often  forced  to  marry  a  weak  girl  and  father  her  im- 
becile offspring.  Such  villages,  depleted  of  the  best, 
tend  to  become  cradles  of  degeneracy  and  crime."  ^ 
The  problem  of  clean  heredity  through  the  elimination 
of  defective  blood  is  certainly  quite  as  vital  for  the  rural 
community  as  for  the  city. 

This  condition  leads  to  the  consideration  of  certain 

*  C.  B.  Davenport,  "Heredity  in  Relation  to  Eugenics,"  p.  211. 


172  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

institutions  which  belong  in  the  main  to  the  country 
life.  The  county  jail  and  the  county  almshouse  are 
usually  rural  institutions.  Unless  most  carefully  man- 
aged each  is  likely  to  be  productive  of  greater  harm  than 
good.  The  jail,  with  its  constant  failure  to  separate 
serious  criminals  from  slight  offenders,  and  its  use  as  a 
place  of  punishment  in  idleness,  and  of  detention  of 
persons  awaiting  trial,  is  typical  of  the  laxness  and 
inefficiency  of  social  discipline  and  control  of  the  in- 
dividual in  rural  life.  The  almshouse,  though  meant 
to  shelter  the  unfortunate  from  suffering,  is  too  fre- 
quently a  temporary  abiding  place  for  the  shiftless  and 
degenerate.  Here  weak-minded  women  give  birth  to 
imbecile  children,  leaving  them  for  society  to  care  for. 
Here  are  collected  the  alcoholic,  the  epileptic,  the  weak- 
minded  —  every  form  of  inherited  defect,  —  without 
separation  and  too  frequently  with  complete  freedom  to 
marry  and  carry  on  their  weakness.  There  are  few 
problems  upon  which  rural  communities  need  more  to 
be  aroused  than  upon  that  of  the  difference  between 
wise  and  unwise  charity. 

In  conclusion,  one  who  would  understand  the  evils 
incident  to  rural  life  must  begin  with  the  fact  of  isola- 
tion. To  meet  these  social  evils  the  problem  is  that  of 
finding  suitable  ways  of  community  cooperation.  There 
must  be  cooperation  in  agricultural  business  undertak- 
ings, cooperation  in  local  government,  association  for 
recreation,  for  discussion,  for  mental  stimulus,  for  edu- 
cation,   for  religion.     A   farmer  is   entirely  dependent 


MORAL   AND    SOCIAL  DEFICIENCIES  1 73 

upon  his  neighborhood,  and  so  is  simply  driven  to 
organize  good  social  activities  if  he  wishes  a  reasonable 
and  happy  life  for  his  family.  The  evils  which  have 
been  discussed  will  largely  pass  away  if  the  young  can 
not  only  be  given  a  knowledge  of  scientific  agriculture, 
but  can  also  be  taught  the  meaning  of  community  life 
and  mutual  helpfulness.  W.  G.  B. 

SURVEY  OF  THE  COMMUNITY  FOR  SOCIAL  AND  MORAL 
DEFICIENCIES 

1.  What  is  the  general  moral  level  of  the  community?  What 
interests  have  the  adult  members  of  the  community  in  maintaining 
higher  standards  of  conversation,  reading,  social  intercourse,  and 
general  social  control  of  the  life  of  the  community  ?  Are  there  any 
gathering  places  in  the  community  where  idleness  or  viciousness  or 
criminality  of  any  sort  is  encouraged  or  permitted?  Is  the  in- 
tellectual life  of  the  community  made  up  of  matters  of  personal 
gossip  or  unkindly  or  improper  insinuations?  Are  there  petty 
feuds,  neighborhood  disputes,  or  partisan  clamors  of  any  kind  in 
the  community  ?  Are  there  leaders  of  moral  excellence  in  the  com- 
munity? To  what  extent  is  the  moral  leadership  of  the  com- 
munity in  the  hands  of  men  or  women  of  questionable  morality  ? 

2.  Are  there  saloons  or  gambling  houses  or  other  questionable 
resorts  of  any  sort  in  the  community  ?  If  so,  are  they  maintained 
because  of  the  inertia  of  public  opinion  or  are  they  maintained 
by  actual  public  demand?  Is  there  any  pubhc  conscience  on 
these  matters  ?  What  is  the  influence  of  these  gathering  places 
upon  the  life  of  the  school,  especially  upon  the  activities  and  con- 
versation of  the  boys  and  girls  ? 

3.  What  does  the  community  do  about  the  care  of  its  poor  if 
it  has  any  ?  Is  there  a  real  humanitarian  conscience  in  reference 
to  these  unfortunates  ?  What  does  it  do  about  tramps  or  occasional 
criminals  ? 


174  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

4.  Are  there  any  defective  children  in  the  community  who  are 
not  properly  cared  for  ?  Are  there  any  dependent  children  not 
under  the  proper  care  of  society  or  officials  ?  Are  there  any  dehn- 
quent  children  not  properly  guarded  and  cared  for  ?  What  is  the 
community's  method  of  dealing  with  delinquent  children?  Is 
there  a  juvenile  court  having  jurisdiction  over  the  community  ? 
If  so,  are  its  methods  properly  intelligent  ?  Is  the  school  properly 
intelligent  in  dealing  with  moral  questions  that  arise  in  connection 
with  the  school  ? 

5.  Are  there  sufficient  means  of  social  intercourse  in  the  com- 
munity to  prevent  loneliness,  isolation,  and  discouragement? 
Are  there  any  individuals  in  the  community  who  are  antisocial 
or  nonsocial  in  any  way?  Do  all  the  institutions  of  the  com- 
munity —  homes,  business,  industry,  the  church,  the  school, 
—  contribute  to  a  developing  social  Hfe,  or  are  some  of  these  in- 
stitutions morally  destructive  ?  For  example :  is  business  carried 
on  on  a  high  level  of  honesty  and  fair  dealing?  Is  industry 
carried  on  under  proper  conditions  ?  Are  the  workingmen  satis- 
fied with  their  conditions  of  labor  and  wages  ?  Is  it  possible  for 
them  to  live  a  decent  life  in  the  community?  Is  child  labor  or 
any  form  of  child  oppression  known  in  connection  with  the  in- 
dustrial life  ?  Is  there  any  vulgar  ostentation  on  the  part  of  the 
well-to-do  ?  Are  the  churches  of  the  community  helpful  institu- 
tions or  narrow  and  bigoted  ?  Are  the  homes  of  the  community 
influential  toward  a  higher  social  life,  or  do  they  breed  antisocial 
influences  ?  Is  the  influence  of  the  school  socially  and  morally 
constructive  in  the  community  ? 

6.  Are  there  any  glaring  distinctions  of  classes  in  the  com- 
munity? Are  there  any  families  extremely  poor  and  others 
extremely  rich?  Is  there  a  genuine  democracy  of  neighborliness 
in  the  community?  What  is  being  done  to  promote  the  spirit 
of  neighborliness?  What  is  being  done  to  promote  a  growing 
democracy  in  industry  or  social  life  in  general?  What,  if  any- 
thing, is  being  done  to  raise  the  general  standards  of  living? 


MORAL  AND    SOCIAL  DEFICLENCIES  175 

What  is  the  attitude  of  the  people  as  a  whole  toward  the  questions 
of  industry?  Is  work  looked  upon  as  evil?  Are  there  any  in- 
terests in  the  general  community  problems  ?  Are  there  any  com- 
munity problems  —  such  as  business  cooperation,  taxation, 
good  roads,  railway  rates,  educational  problems,  establishment 
of  libraries,  school  improvements,  community  playgrounds,  manual 
training  and  domestic  economy  in  the  schools,  etc.  —  occupying 
the  attention  of  the  community  in  any  way  ?  What  is  the  general 
outcome  of  community  activity  and  interest  ?  What  is  the  repu- 
tation among  its  neighboring  communities?  Is  this  reputation 
fair?  Are  all  the  moral  and  social  resources  of  the  community 
being  properly  developed,  or  are  they  decadent  ?  What  new  types 
of  leadership  are  necessary  to  develop  more  completely  these  moral 
and  social  ideals  and  resources  of  the  community?  Can  this 
leadership  be  secured  ?    If  not,  why  not  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Graham.     The  Rural  Exodus. 

Small  and  Vincent.    Introduction  to  Society, 

Stone,  Roy.    New  Roads  and  Law. 

Strong.     The  New  Era. 

Thompson.    Growth  of  the  Town. 

Turner.    Significance  of  Frontier  Life  in  America. 

Henderson.    Defectives,  Delinquents,  and  Dependents. 

Henderson.     The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

The  volumes  of  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  National  Conference 
of  Charities  and  Correction  contained  many  valuable  articles  deal- 
ing with  conditions  in  rural  and  village  communities.  State  re- 
ports of  the  same  character  are  to  be  found  in  many  of  the  States. 
Here  also  may  be  included  reports  of  asylums  for  the  feeble-minded 
and  the  insane  and  for  the  treatment  of  criminal  classes. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  Survey,  a  weekly  magazine, 
published  by  the  Charities  Publication  Committee,  New  York, 
in  which  may  be  found  many  studies  of  rural  and  village  com- 
munities. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  RELIGIOUS  LIFE   OF  THE   COMMUNITY 

Speaking  from  the  experiences  of  ten  years  of  work  in 
a  distinctively  rural  community,  and  three  years  in  a  town 
of  some  six  thousand  inhabitants,  during  which  time  the 
writer  has  visited  scores  of  city  churches,  and  through 
the  nature  of  his  work  obtained  a  very  fair  knowledge 
of  conditions  in  the  city  parishes,  he  wonders  upon  what 
possible  grounds  a  rural  church  problem  is  so  generally 
accepted  as  an  almost  national  peril. 

The  seven  years  were  spent  in  a  town  of  not  quite  600 
inhabitants  with  six  churches  of  various  denominations, 
—  one  to  about  every  one  hundred  persons.  On  the 
average  not  more  than  one  of  these  six  churches  were 
closed  during  those  years.  Never  fewer  than  two  hun- 
dred people  attended  these  churches  regularly.  Ours 
was  a  typical  New  England  town  in  the  proverbial  re- 
gion of  abandoned  farms  and  summer  visitors.  Attend- 
ance upon  church  services  with  most  of  our  people  meant 
a  long  drive  after  two  or  three  hours  of  work  on  Sunday 
morning,  and  after  a  long  week  of  strenuous  toil  from 
dawn  until  dark.  A  careful  perusal  of  any  denomina- 
tional year  book  will  show  clearly  that  we  have  a  na- 
tional and  not  merely  a  rural  church  problem. 

176 


THE   RELIGIOUS   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  1 77 

This  town  I  knew  so  well  was  merely  t)^ical  of  some 
forty-nine  other  townships  of  which  I  made  a  careful 
study  in  a  house  to  house  visitation. 

In  my  present  field  in  a  town  of  6000  population  we 
have  seven  churches  and  the  past  three  years  the  total 
Sunday  congregations  in  these  churches  have  not  averaged 
over  1500,  and  in  this  town  these  seven  churches  are 
all  within  the  confines  of  six  blocks. 

A  recent  census  carefully  taken  under  the  direction 
of  the  New  York  City  Federation  of  Churches  revealed 
the  fact  that  less  than  50  per  cent  of  Protestants  in  New 
York  are  church  goers.  Despite  the  increase  of  popula- 
tion of  270,000  in  the  previous  five  years,  seventeen 
churches  were  closed  while  only  fourteen  Protestant 
churches  were  built.  Not  long  ago  Dr.  D.  W.  Waldron 
made  a  thorough  inquiry  regarding  Boston's  religious 
conditions.  He  found  that  allowing  for  a  proper  con- 
stituency of  three  fifths  of  the  population,  exclusive 
of  Jews  and  Roman  Catholics,  able  to  attend  church, 
there  would  be  room  for  all  in  the  Protestant  churches, 
and  21,625  empty  seats.  Similar  statistics  in  many 
cities  and  towns  prove  clearly  that  the  church  has  failed 
to  gratify  the  crying  needs  of  the  human  soul. 

Persistently,  for  years,  advanced  thinkers,  —  men  like 
Bishop  Potter,  Washington  Gladden,  Josiah  Strong, 
Dr.  R.  T.  Ely,  and  Professor  Rauschenbusch,  have 
pointed  out  the  churches'  failures  and  mistakes,  and 
the  channels  into  which  the  extreme  religious  efforts 
must  be  turned.     Twenty   years   ago  Dr.  Healy  gave 


1 78  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

voice  to  the  revolutionary  utterance,  "  I  should  say  that 
half  the  time  of  the  theological  student  should  be  devoted 
to  social  science,  and  theological  seminaries  should  be 
the  chief  intellectual  centers  for  sociology."  Recently, 
Professor  Rauschenbusch  pointedly  made  clear  the  defect 
in  the  old  Evangelism,  when  he  said  :  "  Mischief  begins 
when  the  Church  makes  herself  the  end.  She  does  not 
exist  for  her  own  sake.  She  is  simply  a  working  organiza- 
tion to  create  the  Christian  life  in  individuals  and  the 
Kingdom  of  God  in  human  society." 

My  own  experience  with  local  and  general  governing 
authorities  of  the  church  has  been  that  the  one  inquiry 
as  to  the  success  of  any  man's  pastorate  is,  "  Did  he  build 
up  the  Church?  "  —  Not  as  it  should  be,  "  Did  he  build 
up  the  community,  build  character,  thrift,  muscles,  and 
morals?  " 

The  church  is  conservative.  It  takes  one  step  at  a 
time,  and  often  it  hesitates  overlong  before  it  takes  the 
first  step.  The  old  EvangeHsm  of  the  Church  has  been 
overcautious.  Human  society  has  had  to  wade  through 
2000  years  of  blood  and  tears,  of  terror  and  fiery  death, 
before  the  simple  words  of  the  sermon  on  the  mount 
have  become  at  all  comprehensible. 

After  centuries  under  the  tyranny  of  dogma,  ritual, 
creed,  and  superstition,  demanding  the  tribute  and 
blind  obedience  of  man ;  —  finally  men  of  courage  and 
vision  throughout  the  Christian  world  have  demanded 
a  rebirth  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ.  They  beHeve 
that  the  church  must  realize  the  seriousness  of  condi- 


THE   RELIGIOUS   LIFE    OF    THE    COMMUNITY  1 79 

tions,  or  go  down  to  ruin.  The  new  Evangelism  says 
that  religion  is  to  save  both  the  human  soul  and  the 
human  race.  The  soul  is  to  seek  righteousness  and 
eternal  life.  The  race  is  to  seek  righteousness  and  the 
Kingdom  of  God. 

Religion  that  does  not  apply  itself  fully  to  every  side 
of  human  life  cannot  really  live.  Not  only  must  the 
rural  church  relate  itself  to  agriculture;  but  the  city 
church  must  relate  itself  to  business,  industry,  banking, 
tenement  houses,  land  owning,  —  in  short,  the  whole 
of  life,  striking  to  the  very  roots  of  social  conditions. 
Too  long  the  churches  have  been  what  they  were  when 
Wendell  Phillips  called  them  the  Great  Apologists  for 
euery  powerful  wrong. 

In  the  days  of  vice,  of  crime,  of  municipal  corruption, 
of  shame  and  degradation,  the  regenerative  activities 
have  usually  been  led  by  men  outside  of  the  churches,  — 
men  inspired  with  a  faith  in  God  greater  than  that  of  the 
churches.  The  New  EvangeHsm  says,  "  There  must 
be  peace,  not  war,  cooperation,  not  competition,  a  land 
where  every  man,  woman,  and  child  shall  exist  in  comfort, 
not  that  milHons  should  suffer  from  want  on  the  one  hand, 
while  thousands  decay  with  luxury  and  excess  on  the 
other,  where  every  human  being  upon  this  earth  shall 
have  a  chance  to  make  the  most  of  the  faculties  God  has 
given  him." 

This  is  the  new  preaching  of  repentance  and  the  new 
vision  of  salvation,  and  as  Ray  S.  Baker  puts  it :  "  It 
is  to  bring  about  in  society  at  large,  the  spirit  of  the 


l8o  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

family  at  its  best  and  finest.  The  cooperation  of  strong 
and  weak,  old  and  young,  the  service  of  all  by  each, 
and  each  by  all,  making  of  humanity  one  great  family." 
"  I  came  not  to  be  ministered  unto,  but  to  minister." 
Rightly  does  President  Roosevelt's  commission  on  coun- 
try life  lay  great  emphasis  on  the  fact  that  the  pastor 
in  the  small  town  must  be  a  community  leader.  With 
the  spirit  of  the  Christ,  he  must  in  the  spirit  of  the  New 
EvangeHsm,  realize  his  great  field  of  activity.  Filling 
the  office  with  a  profit,  he  must  be  the  first  to  discern 
wrong  and  evil,  and  his  vision  will  fire  the  souls  of  men. 
He  must  also  follow  behind  the  rumbHng  wheels  of  the 
chariot  of  state,  and  gather  up  the  wounded  and  comfort 
the  broken-hearted.  The  Master  perfectly  combined 
both  of  these  ofiices,  —  the  leader  and  the  healer. 

It  is  estimated  that  four  out  of  every  five  of  our  most 
prominent  and  successful  men  have  been  reared  in  small 
towns  or  rural  districts.  Some  one  says  that  to  reform 
a  man  you  must  begin  with  his  grandmother ;  so  we  may 
say,  to  convert  a  city  population  and  exert  an  influence 
on  its  best  fife,  we  must  begin  with  the  youth  of  our 
small  towns.  So  if  the  minister  in  the  small  towns  ful- 
fills the  functions  of  his  leadership,  his  influence  will 
be  felt  in  many  places  and  times  remote,  as  well  as  in  the 
present  day. 

The  failure  of  country  ministers  in  nearly  every  in- 
stance can  be  traced  to  their  deserting  their  posts  long 
before  they  had  had  time  enough  to  impress  their  person- 
ality upon  the  community,  and  in  reality  assume  leader- 


THE   RELIGIOUS   LIFE    OF    THE   COMMUNITY  l8l 

ship  of  which  they  must  make  full  proof  in  the  fields  where 
they  are  placed,  —  not  in  a  day  can  they  win  the  trust 
and  love  of  their  followers. 

In  a  recent  yearly  conference  in  a  Methodist  Church, 
it  was  reported  that  fifty-seven  young  ministers  of 
their  number  had  quit  the  ministry  during  the  year. 
All  were  recent  graduates ;  all  deserted  on  the  plea  that 
they  were  not  paid  enough.  Great  leaders,  followers 
of  the  lowly  Nazarene,  must  display  heroic  quaHties, 
courage  and  fortitude,  in  constancy.  They  must  be 
willing  to  undergo  self-denial  and  hardship.  Most 
abhorrent  examples  of  improvidence  and  poverty  are 
found  in  the  homes  of  many  country  ministers  who 
have  married  before  or  immediately  after  their  ordina- 
tion, and  whose  wives  have  become  mere  brood  women. 
What  could  be  a  poorer  type  of  love  to  be  held  up  for 
an  example  in  the  community  than  that  of  a  minister 
who  is  willing  to  permit  his  wife  and  children  to  suffer, 
not  only  for  the  pleasant  things,  but,  ofttimes,  for  edu- 
cation, and  the  necessities  of  hfe. 

By  far  the  larger  majority  of  country  ministers  look 
upon  their  fields  in  small  towns  either  as  stepping  stones 
to  the  city,  or  merely  as  a  means  of  existence ;  or  a  haven 
from  real  toil  and  struggle  in  their  old  age.  The  two 
evils  in  the  problem  of  the  church  in  the  small  towns 
which  can  be  laid  at  the  door  of  the  minister  are  a 
spirit  of  restlessness  and  resigned  indifference.  Lacking 
the  competition  of  the  city  and  the  inspiring  effects  of 
constant  contact  with  men  of  their  own  craft  the  tend- 


l82  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

ency  towards  idleness  finds  great  growth;  too  easily 
the  country  minister  forgets  that  his  own  dominating 
purpose  must  be  to  serve  the  Lord  Christ  in  preach- 
ing the  Gospel  of  the  grace  of  God,  and  to  look  upon 
the  souls  of  all  those  whom  he  is  called  to  serve, 
whether  in  city  or  country,  as  precious  in  the  sight  of  his 
Master. 

Too  often  the  country  pastor  is  tempted  to  try  to  be 
somebody  else.  Reading  of  the  achievements  of  famous 
divines,  sensationally  successful  in  some  new  fad  or 
movement,  or  hearing  some  eloquent  preacher  in  some 
great  gathering,  the  country  minister  in  a  burst  of  zeal 
feels  called  upon  to  play  their  part  and  not  his  own. 
The  call  which  a  man  has  for  the  ministry  is  a  call  for  hinij 
himself.  A  thing  of  supreme  importance  for  him  to  do 
is  that  thing  to  which  he  is  appointed,  so  far  as  his  con- 
secrated powers  will  enable  him  to  do  it,  whether  it  be 
great  or  small,  obscure  or  prominent.  The  minister  in 
the  country,  as  well  as  everywhere  else,  will  encounter 
among  the  people  the  most  unreasonable  demands  and 
expectations. 

I  have  read  of  a  man  who,  writing  to  a  friend  upon  the 
subject  of  the  kind  of  clergyman  they  wanted  in  their 
church,  said :  "  We  want  a  man  who  knows  all  about 
the  enemy,  has  some  capacity  for  working  miracles,  is 
ready,  if  need  be,  to  be  stoned,  can  teach  the  women, 
can  interest  the  children,  make  princes  tremble,  convert 
kings,  pick  up  sticks,  earn  his  own  living,  go  through 
fire  and  water  for  the  good  of  others  with  no  expectation 


THE   RELIGIOUS   LEFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  1 83 

that  they  will  interest  themselves  in  him,  and,  in  general, 
lead  a  forlorn  hope  of  dependent  followers." 

This  is  a  time  when  as  never  before  the  ministry  is 
met  by  impossible  and  indefinite  plans.  Affected  as 
the  minister  is  bound  to  be  by  the  spiritual  atmosphere 
of  his  flock,  only  too  often  must  he  seek  inspiration  and 
real  friendliness  beyond  the  bounds  of  his  parish ;  in  the 
country  doctor,  or  lawyer,  or  the  school-teacher,  he 
will  not  only  find  the  delightful  intercourse  of  friends 
but  some  appreciation  of  his  own  worth. 

"  Like  people,  like  priests  ''  is  true  in  the  very  nature 
of  things,  once  they  are  brought  together  as  sheep  and 
shepherd.  Each  is  altered  by  the  other.  Where  the 
pulpit  effects  the  uplift  of  the  pews,  we  find  a  successful 
ministry.  Where  the  pews  drag  down  the  pulpit,  the 
ministry  is  a  failure. 

Where  are  the  men  to-day  in  the  typical  small  town 
who  demand  a  ministry  of  fire  and  blood  and  iron? 
Where  is  the  church  in  a  small  town  whose  pews  are  not 
largely  occupied  by  self-satisfied  and  self-complacent 
folk,  whose  passion  for  praise  and  admiration  is  Hke  that 
of  a  drunkard  for  his  dram,  whose  ideal  of  life  is  having 
a  good  time,  who  hate  everything  that  requires  thought 
or  makes  trouble,  who  see  only  the  ridiculous  side  of 
heroism,  and  who  can  talk  nothing  but  fashionable 
gossip  ? 

God  help  the  minister  who  has  a  call  to  break  the 
bread  of  life  to  hearts  as  cold  as  tombstones,  and  in 
homes  whose  closets  rattle  with  the  bones  of  domestic 


1 84  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

skeletons;  to  women  who  haven't  the  least  idea  of  a 
moral  purpose  in  life ;  and  to  men  whose  wealth  is  built 
upon  crushed  and  bleeding  hearts. 

The  strong  minister  in  any  place,  if  he  can  and  will 
hold  out,  will  eventually  attract  to  himself  strong  men, 
and  the  unworldly  parson  who  is  proof  against  selfishness 
and  religious  indifference,  will  after  a  time  have  a  con- 
gregation of  devout  people,  full  of  faith  and  good  works. 
"  Like  people,  like  priest  "  spells  on  the  one  hand  to- 
day discovery,  invention,  free  discussion,  modernism,  — 
on  the  other,  sectarianism,  shepherdless  flocks  and  flock- 
less  shepherds,  tongue-tied  preachers,  and  clerical 
disaster,  theological  fads,  the  destructive  criticism  of  the 
Bible,  and  the  revised  Christianity  of  Christian  Science 
and  Spiritualism,  religious  indifference,  irreverence, 
moral  laxity,  revolutionary  socialism ;  —  the  first  sounds 
the  death  knell  of  the  people,  the  second  the  death  knell 
of  the  minister.  The  minister  is  a  negligible  quantity 
to-day,  —  the  laity  holds  the  balance  of  power.  Sunday 
over,  the  minister  is  a  cipher.  If  the  pulpit  can  domi- 
nate and  assume  its  full  office  of  leadership  it  will  survive, 
but  a  pulpit  that  is  but  an  echo  of  the  pews  has  no  mes- 
sage because  of  which  it  should  be  endured,  and  a 
minister  who  has  become  like  his  people  is  one  useless 
man  too  many. 

If  the  church  is  to  repair  past  mistakes  it  must  realize 
that  its  former  policy  of  indifferentism,  its  devotion  to 
dogma,  rather  than  true  righteousness,  its  worship  of 
material  things  and  its  deference  to  wealth  and  power, 


THE   RELIGIOUS   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  185 

have  had  their  full  share  in  the  creation  of  just  criticism 
and  social  unrest.  "  I  came  not  to  be  ministered  unto, 
but  to  minister  "  justifies  the  call  for  service. 

The  church  must  abandon  the  idea,  as  Professor 
Devine  says,  that  only  those  agencies  are  of  use  to  them 
which  they  directly  control  and  must  rise  to  the  idea  that 
all  agencies  are  of  use  to  them  in  which  their  members 
do  good  work :  ''  I  hold  it  to  be  safer  and  more  desiraj^le 
that  the  eyes  of  men  shall  be  opened  to  misery  and  in- 
justice and  great  human  needs  by  the  churches,  than  that 
such  information  should  come  from  reckless  agitators, 
from  sensational  newspapers,  or  through  any  other 
channels  through  which  too  often  such  information 
comes." 

The  church  alone  to-day  can  fulfill  permanently  and 
successfully  the  social  mission  of  Christianity  through  the 
dynamic  power  that  comes  from  the  hfe  and  teaching 
of  the  Incarnate  Christ,  just  as  almost  every  foreign 
mission  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  social  settlement, 
and  just  as  the  most  successful  city  churches  find  their 
best  congregations  in  night  schools,  in  literary  clubs,  in 
trade  classes,  and  in  people's  institutes.  So  the  church 
in  the  small  town  will  in  many  cases  be  able  to  humanize, 
as  well  as  Christianize,  the  community  by  asking  the 
question,  "  What  do  the  people  want  that  the  church 
does  not  offer  ?  "  And  in  the  small  town  as  well  as  in 
mission  fields,  the  church  can  meet  and  is  in  many  in- 
stances meeting  the  crying  wants  of  the  people. 

Years  ago,  Dwight  L.  Moody  said  that  the  church 


l86  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

must  become  the  center  of  all  the  social,  industrial,  and 
religious  life  of  the  community.  In  many  regions  the 
vital  problem  of  financial  support  must  be  met  by  the 
missionary  boards  of  our  churches  or,  as  President  Eliot 
advocates,  by  a  large  endowment  fund  especially  for 
supplementing  the  local  support  of  the  church  in  the 
small  town.  In  most  rural  communities  the  population 
is  constantly  shifting,  and  the  majority  of  the  people 
live  on  incomes  where  every  penny  counts,  and  these 
communities  are  justified  as  fully  as  any  foreign  field  in 
seeking  outside  aid.  While  perhaps  the  minister  ought 
to  know  how  to  get  a  living  out  of  his  farm,  or  in  some 
other  way,  the  average  man  cannot  do  it  and  still  do  the 
work  of  his  ministry.  But  until  the  church  at  large 
awakens  to  its  obligations  and  responsibilities,  the 
minister  must  be  a  pioneer  of  the  New  Evangelism. 

"  As  every  man  hath  opportunity,  let  him  do  good." 
In  every  direction  the  minister  in  the  small  town  has 
opportunity  to  do  good  and  in  no  greater  measure  than 
in  helping  solve  the  problems  of  the  great  cities.  In 
every  community  there  are  abandoned  farms,  or  ex- 
cellent camping  sites,  which  through  the  interest  of  the 
country  minister  might  furnish  a  host  of  city  children 
a  fortnight's  vacation  that  would  mean  life  renewed,  and 
often  preserved,  for  those  Httle  souls  of  the  city  street. 
In  or  near  every  small  town  the  country  minister  can  find 
a  reasonable  boarding  place,  with  intelKgent  folk,  where 
real  sympathy,  fresh  air,  milk,  and  eggs  would  be  the 
saving  of  scores  of  city  convalescents.    I  have  found 


THE   RELIGIOUS   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  1 87 

no  difficulty  when  cooperating  with  the  ministers  of 
large  city  parishes,  in  finding  just  the  right  places, 
and  always  at  a  most  reasonable  cost.  More  and  more 
must  the  cooperation  of  the  city  and  country  churches 
be  brought  about.  Each  can  do  great  things  to  aid  the 
other. 

One  real  crime  of  the  minister  in  the  small  town  is 
failure  to  follow  up  the  life  of  the  boy  or  girl  who  goes 
to  the  city.  No  minister  has  the  right  to  feel  that  he 
has  discharged  his  duty  until  he  knows  that  every  boy 
or  girl  going  to  the  city  from  his  parish  is  actually  under 
the  pastoral  care  of  some  minister  in  the  new  home. 
Even  then,  at  regular  intervals,  he  should  ascertain  all 
that  is  possible  of  their  business,  social,  and  religious 
life  in  the  city. 

After  ten  years  of  work  in  small  towns,  I  have  yet  to 
find  any  real  practical  need  of  the  community  which 
cannot  be  supplied.  Through  the  State  Board  of 
Agriculture  I  have  obtained  not  only  abundant  sugges- 
tions and  advice,  but  real  cooperation  in  teaching 
young  and  old  a  greater  appreciation  of  rural  life  and 
farm  work,  providing  of  lecturers  on  pertinent  subjects, 
the  forming  of  garden  clubs  and  holding  of  farmers' 
institutes.  In  many  States,  the  Board  of  Agriculture, 
together  with  the  State  Board  of  Education,  is  meeting 
rural  problems,  ofttimes  without  even  the  cooperation 
or  interest  of  the  churches.  In  Ohio  alone,  agriculture 
is  taught  in  1900  schools.  Through  the  Playground 
and  Recreation  Association  of  America,  one  can  find  in 


l88  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

abundance  practical  plans  and  methods  for  developing 
through  pleasant  social  contact  in  games,  time-honored 
sports,  and  athletics,  a  more  kindly  community  life. 
Field  days  and  play  picnics  for  country  children  of  an 
entire  county,  with  athletic  games,  music,  and  sensible 
amusements,  meet  the  great  need  of  play,  more  impor- 
tant in  country  than  in  city  life,  and  will  do  much  to 
counteract  the  evil  influences  of  the  typical  county  fair 
with  its  "  phony  ''  races  and  freak  shows.  On  the  same 
occasions  small  cash  prizes  awarded  to  farmers,  who  show 
ingenuity  in  devising  new  implements  of  work,  or  more 
successful  methods  of  cultivation,  are  sure  to  produce 
real  results. 

My  most  successful  co-workers  and  assistants,  whether 
as  parish  visitors,  teachers  of  handicrafts,  or  night 
schools,  or  even  as  rural  district  nurses,  have  been 
volunteer  workers  secured  by  appealing  to  friends  or 
some  brother  minister  in  a  large  city  parish.  In  the 
labors  of  these  men  and  women  one  is  sure  to  discover 
true  missionary  spirit  and  rare  qualifications  for  service. 
In  all  of  our  large  city  churches  there  are  scores  of 
persons  of  independent  means,  who,  unable  to  answer 
the  call  for  missionary  service  involving  a  period  of 
years,  gladly  welcome  the  opportunity  of  giving  three, 
four,  or  six  months  out  of  the  year  to  the  service  of 
their  fellow  men.  The  most  successful  country  ministers 
I  have  known  have  been  those  who  remained  long 
enough  in  their  fields  to  have  a  better  vegetable  garden 
and  more  success  in  the  raising  of  poultry  than  many 


THE   RELIGIOUS   LIFE    OF   THE   COMMUNITY  1 89 

of  their  flock.  For  evenings  of  amusement  one  can 
easily  secure  from  the  churches  or  schools  in  the  nearest 
city  excellent  lectures  on  interesting  subjects,  and 
groups  of  accomplished  singers  or  musicians. 

In  cases  of  serious  and  prolonged  illness,  even  involving 
some  serious  operation  or  a  long  period  of  treatment, 
I  have  never  failed  in  securing  a  free  bed  in  the  hospital 
of  some  neighboring  city;  I  have  had  no  difficulty  in 
securing  the  aid  of  eminent  physicians  for  one  or  two 
days  in  a  community  where  one  practicing  physician 
happened  to  be  ill,  or  had  gone  to  more  lucrative  fields. 
In  the  dead  of  a  zero  night,  through  great  drifts  of  snow, 
I  have  summoned  to  my  aid  overworked  doctors  from 
a  neighboring  town,  and  never  once  has  my  appeal 
been  in  vain. 

Through  the  nearest  large  city  parish,  the  minister 
may  arrange  with  very  little  effort  upon  his  part,  to  act 
as  the  middleman  between  the  farmer  for  the  sale  of 
his  produce,  and  the  many  comfortable  homes  of  the  city 
parishioners.  Among  the  summer  visitors  that  have 
almost  universally  invaded  every  rural  community,  and 
whom  the  country  parson  has  the  right  to  consider  as 
temporary  members  of  his  fold,  one  can  find  if  he  persists 
and  insists,  not  only  genuine  interest,  but  active  co- 
operation in  his  every  endeavor  to  make  better  the 
community.  No  problem  for  the  general  uplift  of  his 
people  need  be  too  great  for  the  country  parson.  I  know 
one  clergyman  in  a  small  town  who  was  responsible 
for  bettering  the  marriage  laws  and  greatly  lessening  the 


I  go  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

divorce  evil  of  an  entire  State.  I  know  of  no  small  town 
where  one  cannot  find  a  suitable  schoolhouse,  grange 
hall,  or  lodge  room  which  can  be  used  as  a  social  center. 
In  these  days  of  church  periodical  clubs  and  theological 
lending  libraries  no  minister  need  lack  whatever  he  may 
desire  in  books  or  current  periodicals. 

No  longer,  if  the  church  is  to  hold  its  rightful  place  in 
the  community,  can  we  be  satisfied  with  the  typical 
ugliness  and  meanness  of  the  church  building  in  the 
small  town,  so  often  outwardly  unkept  and  within  ill- 
ventilated  and  dirty.  I  doubt  whether  any  native  in 
Christendom  was  ever  Christianized  through  frame 
churches  built  in  the  form  of  a  squash.  I  long  for  the 
day  when  the  small  town  will  build  stone  churches,  such 
as  one  finds  in  rural  England,  adapted  to  local  circum- 
stances, and  according  to  local  conditions  as  to  building 
material. 

The  church  ought  to  be  the  sign  and  monument  of 
all  that  is  sweetest  and  dearest  and  best  in  life,  —  an 
abiding  source  of  elevating,  purifying,  and  ennobling 
influences.  It  is  bound  to  be  considered  a  reflection  of  its 
minister's  standard. 

In  any  community  the  minister's  first  work  is  to  know 
the  place  and  the  God  of  the  place.  He  must  realize 
that  his  kind  of  work  calls  for  the  highest  kind  of  hero- 
ism, —  the  heroism  of  duty.  He  must  remember  that 
he  cannot  help  men  by  asking  too  little  of  them.  The 
trifling  business  of  the  church  and  the  small  gift  of 
money  are  not  sacrifices.    The  church  needs  leaders  in 


THE   RELIGIOUS   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  191 

the  pews  as  well  as  in  the  pulpit,  and  when  the  minister 
demands  something  heroic,  or  something  really  well  worth 
doing,  then  will  men  realize  the  place  God  ought  to  have 
in  their  lives  and  the  church  will  have  its  necessary 
leaders  and  workers.  Then  will  the  laymen  learn  that 
there  is  no  actual  or  real  love,  but  service ;  there  is  no 
true  service,  but  sacrifice,  the  spending  of  life  and  self 
in  the  service  of  all :  that  is  God ;  that  is  Christ ;  that 
is  the  Holy  Spirit;  that  is  Christianity;  that  is  the 
ministry  of  every  Christian  man  and  woman. 

Christianity  is  both  social  and  individualistic.  The 
minister  in  the  small  town  to-day  must  be  imbued  with 
the  fact  that  both  the  man  who  insists  on  individual  sal- 
vation and  the  other  man  who  stands  for  social  service 
are  right.  "  This  ought  ye  to  have  done  and  not  to 
leave  the  other  undone." 

The  minister  of  the  New  Evangelism  must  mingle 
freely  with  the  world  into  which  the  church  must  go 
(and  no  human  interest  in  the  world  is  outside  the 
interest  of  the  church).  But  while  in  touch  with  the 
spirit  of  the  times,  in  running  his  church  as  a  successful 
man  runs  his  business,  he  cannot  depend  upon  mere 
cleverness  of  management  instead  of  the  grace  of  God ; 
nor  neglect  prayer  and  intercession  for  the  sake  of  in- 
fluence with  the  press;  nor  lower  the  teaching  of  the 
church  or  its  moral  standard,  in  order  to  suit  an  easy 
and  self-indulgent  age,  unless  he  would  spell  final  ruin 
and  failure  and  shame  for  his  ministry.  The  voice  of 
the  Christ  still  rings  down  the  centuries,  "  My  kingdom 


192  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

is  not  of  this  world.''  Only  a  minister  whose  weapons 
still  are  faith,  hope,  and  love  and  prayer,  can  fulfill 
his  divine  mission.  It  does  not  make  so  much  dif- 
ference where  as  how  a  man  works.  "  In  stewards  it 
is  required  that  a  man  be  found  faithful." 

Happy  is  the  minister  in  the  small  community;  his 
lot  is  one  to  be  envied  through  all  his  life  and  service, 
even  to  the  rest  that  comes  at  length  to  all. 

"  Happy  the  man  whom  Priest  and  Friend 
A  few  sequestered  people  call, 
Resigned  an  humble  folk  to  serve 
In  parish  small. 

"  Where  books  with  thought,  where  fields  with  health. 
Where  hearts  enrich  him  with  their  love ; 
Where  homes  are  pure,  in  some  compare 
With  that  above. 

"  Blest,  who  can  undisturbedly  thus 
His  choicest  years  see  pass  away ; 
At  peace  with  God,  in  love  to  men, 
Content  by  day ; 

"  Reposeful  nights ;  his  work  and  rest 
Alternate  born ;  sweet  meditation, 
And  usefulness,  which  springeth  out 
Of  consecration. 

"  Thus  let  me  live ;  thus  let  me  die ; 
The  noisy  haunts  of  men  unknown ; 
Pass  out  of  Hfe,  and  at  my  grave 
A  cross  of  stone." 

C.  C.  T. 


THE   RELIGIOUS    LIFE    OF   THE   COMMUNITY         I93 

SURVEY  OF  THE  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  OF  THE  COMMUNITY 

Are  the  churches  in  your  community  cooperating  for  the  pur- 
pose of  trying  to  reach  and  influence  every  individual  ? 

Is  some  church  responsible  for  every  square  mile  ? 

Is  the  community  overchurched  ? 

How  many  churches,  and  for  what  populations  ? 

How  long  has  been  the  average  pastorate  in  each  church  for 
the  past  ten  years  ? 

Is  the  general  emphasis  on  the  church  itself  or  on  the  work  to 
be  done  by  the  church  for  all  men  ? 

For  what  reason  have  the  pastors,  if  any,  resigned  their  charges 
within  recent  years  ? 

Do  the  ministers  receive  a  living  salary  ? 

How  many  ministers  are  known  to  practice  personal  visitation, 
except  in  cases  of  sickness  or  death  ? 

Do  any  of  the  churches  confine  their  work  to  services  once  a 
week?    Is  there  an  "open  church"  ? 

Is  the  minister  overloaded  with  station  work  in  neighboring 
towns? 

Does  the  church  give  evidence  of  great  power  of  leader- 
ship? 

Is  there  any  proof  that  the  church  fosters  personal  character 
and  neighborhood  righteousness  ? 

Is  there  any  social  activity  in  the  churches  other  than  short 
informal  meetings  after  services,  or  suppers  that  are  held  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  funds  ? 

What  evidence  is  there  of  a  sense  of  social  responsibihty  for  the 
entire  community  ? 

Is  there  a  parish  house  in  the  town  ?  If  so,  does  it  emanate  in- 
fluences that  go  to  build  up  the  moral  and  spiritual  tones  of  the 
whole  community  ? 

Has  any  effort  been  made  to  extend  the  work  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
or  Y.  W.  C.  A.  into  your  community? 
o 


194  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

What  is  being  done  for  the  religious  education  of  the  community 
by  Sunday  schools?  by  lectures,  assemblies,  or  " chautauquas " ? 

What  part  of  the  population  is  reached  by  these  means  ? 

Are  the  methods  of  rehgious  education  modern  and  worth  while  ? 

Do  the  religious  institutions  and  leaders  of  the  community 
really  have  any  vital  effect  upon  the  conduct  of  the  people  ? 

What  is  the  religious  attitude  in  your  community  toward  play, 
amusements,  social  gatherings,  and  the  like  ?  Has  the  church  any 
conscience  on  the  questions  of  graft,  unfair  business  practices, 
political  corruption,  vicious  governmental  poHcies,  or  any  of  the 
modern  forms  of  sin  ?  Which  is  the  more  important  in  the  com- 
munity, money  or  human  welfare  ? 

What  incentives  has  the  minister  to  continue  in  his  field  ? 

What  are  the  attitudes  of  various  types  of  people  in  the  com- 
munity toward  the  church  and  its  work  ? 

Does  the  religious  teaching  of  your  community  connect  itself 
in  any  vital  way  with  the  common  life  of  the  people?  Does  it 
mean  anything  worth  while  in  the  present  for  the  common  man  ? 

What  social  activities  (hygienic  campaigns,  industrial  move- 
ments, educational  programs,  or  plans  for  deepening  social  under- 
standing) have  arisen  in  the  churches  of  your  community,  or  been 
assisted  by  the  religious  forces  ?  Cannot  the  religious  institutions, 
leaders,  and  people  be  helped  to  see  the  relationship  of  their  work 
to  the  present  social  problem  as  a  whole  ? 

Is  there  not  some  social  problem  to  be  solved,  or  some  social 
activity  to  be  carried  through  which  can  enlist  the  services  of 
every  individual  in  the  community,  in  a  religious  spirit  ? 

Has  your  community  any  sort  of  a  religious  program  looking 
ahead  for  ten  years  or  more,  forecasting  the  developments  and 
preparing  for  them,  and  outlining  a  community  work  for  all  the 
people  ? 

Is  there  any  reason  why  you  should  not  have  such  a  program  ? 

Is  there  any  cooperation  between  the  churches  and  the  public 
schools  ? 


TEE   RELIGIOUS   LIFE    OF   THE   COMMUNITY  195 

What  part  do  the  churches  have  in  the  education  of  the  children 
of  the  community?  Are  the  pubHc  schools  doing  anything  that 
could  better  be  done  by  the  churches  ?  Is  there  any  division  of 
labor  between  the  schools  and  the  churches  ?  Do  the  schools  rec- 
ognize, in  any  way,  the  work  of  the  churches,  the  place  of  religion 
in  the  life  of  the  children  and  in  the  community  ? 

Is  the  work  of  the  public  schools  a  pagan  work,  in  the  sense  of 
being  wholly  intellectual  and  bookish?  Or  is  it  fundamentally 
religious  in  the  sense  of  conserving  the  community  and  individual 
resources  of  a  social  and  moral  sort  ?  Are  the  schools  educating 
away  from  the  community  and  away  from  the  church  ? 

What  is  the  church  doing  for  the  community  as  a  whole  ?  Does 
the  school  recognize  this  and  cooperate  with  it  ? 

Do  both  school  and  church  think  of  themselves  as  social  in- 
stitutions ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

'BuTTERFiELD.     Chapters  in  Rural  Progress. 

Gladden.    Parish  Problems. 

Henderson.    Social  Duties  from  the  Christian  Point  of  View. 

Proceedings  of  the  Conference  on  the  Problems  of  the  Rural 
Church  in  New  England.     Held  in  Boston,  Jan.  18-19,  1909. 
New  England  Country  Church  Association.     Boston,  1909. 
Contains  a  program  of  work,  and  digest  of  addresses. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Morals  and  Rural  Conditions.  Minutes 
of  1 06th  Annual  Meeting,  General  Association  of  Congrega- 
tional Churches  of  Massachusetts.     1908. 

The  Social  Work  of  the  Church.  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 
of  PoHtical  and  Social  Science,  Nov.,  1907. 

Brown.     The  Social  Message  of  the  Modern  Pulpit. 

Peabody.    Jesus  Christ  and  the  Social  Question. 

Rauschenbusch.     Christianity  and  the  Social  Crisis. 

Gilbert.    How  One  Man  Saved  a  Town.    Outlook,  April  18,  1908. 


196  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Hartt.     The   Regeneration   of  Rural   New   England.      Outlook, 

March  3,  10,  17,  31,  1900. 
Kennedy.    Religious  Overlapping.    Independent,  April  9,  May  7, 

1908. 
Nesmith.     The  Rural  Church.    American  Journal  of  Sociology, 

May,  1903. 
Wells.    Church   Federation.    In    Vermont   Missionary,   March, 

1909. 
Wells.     The  Country  Church  and  its  Social  Problem.    Outlook, 

August  18,  1906. 
Weight.     The  Country  Church.    Bibliotheca  Sacra,  April,  1890. 
Messages  of  the  Men  and  Religions  Forward  Movement.     7  Vols. 

Association  Press,  124  East  28th  St.,  New  York. 
Attention  is  especially  called  to  the  following  pamphlets,  which 
will  be  found  of  unusual  service : 
A  Social  Survey  for  Rural  Communities,  by  George  Frederick  Wells, 

published  by  the  author,  150  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York. 
A  Social  Service  Program  for  the  Parish,  published  by  the  Joint 

Commission  on  Social  Service  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 

Church,  157  Montague  Street,  Brooklyn. 
Extended  bibliographies  on  this  general  field  may  be  found  in : 
Writings  on  Practical  Church  Problems,  by  G.  F.  Wells,  Eomiletic 

Review,  August,  1909. 
A  Selected  Bibliography  on  the  Country  Church  Problem,  by  Henry 

K.  Rowe,  Newton  Theological  Institution,  Newton  Centre, 

Mass.     (Sent  on  request.) 
The  Country  Church,  by  G.  F.  Wells,  in  the  Cyclopedia  of  American 

Agriculture, 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  INTELLECTUAL    LIFE    OF    THE    COM^ 
MUNITY 

Between  the  school  and  the  whole  intellectual  life  of 
the  community  there  should  be  the  closest  kinship. 
Yet  it  frequently  happens  that  this  is  not  the  case.  One 
reason  is  that  very  few  people  ever  learn  to  read.  The  pupil 
learns  his  letters,  puts  them  together  into  words,  puts 
words  together  into  sentences  that,  after  a  time,  convey 
sense  to  the  mind,  and  then  he  reads  selections  from  the 
readers.  First  to  Sixth.  He  may  learn  to  enunciate 
clearly  —  the  words ;  and  to  read  according  to  rhetorical 
"  laws.'' 

But  the  taste  for  reading,  intellectual  interests  nur- 
tured by  means  of  these  tastes,  and  life  purposes  that 
have  an  intellectual  value  growing  out  of  this  nurture: 
these  are  things  that  the  schools  do  not  take  account  of, 
nor  strive  for.  Are  the  teachers  to  blame  ?  Not  wholly! 
"  They  teach  but  as  their  fathers  taught.''  They  do  the 
best  they  know.  The  result  is  that  the  schools  are  book- 
ish, after  a  textbook  fashion,  but  they  do  not  minister 
deeply  to  actual  taste  for  the  finer  things  in  the  intel- 
lectual life.  And  the  intellectual  life  of  the  community 
suffers  by  coming  to  have  a  distrust  of  and  a  distaste  for 

books.     '^Books  get  us  nowhere,"  they  say. 

197 


1 98  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

But  the  difficulty  is  that  we  do  not  know  books,  — 
the  great  books  of  the  world.  We  do  not  know  how 
to  read  —  and  therefore  our  intellectual  life,  such  as 
it  is,  goes  on,  in  ignorance  of  the  great  thought  of  the 
world. 

How  can  it  be  otherwise  when  even  with  all  our  efforts 
library  facilities  are  still  tragically  inadequate  every- 
where ?  I  heard,  recently,  in  a  town  of  over  5000  popu- 
lation, which  has  no  free  public  Hbrary,  of  a  girl  in  high 
school  who  came  from  a  good  family  and  who  was  a  most 
excellent  student,  who  yet  asserted  that  she  never  in 
her  life  had  read  a  single  book  outside  of  those  in  her 
school  course.  She  had  been  getting  lessons  all  those 
years,  but  had  never  learned  to  read.  The  teachers 
had  been  teaching  school  rather  than  teaching  children. 

My  plea  is  that  every  community  center  should  have 
its  collection  of  books,  tax-supported,  free  to  every  man, 
woman,  and  child  in  that  community.  The  free  use  of 
a  public  collection  of  books  should  be  as  much  the  birth- 
right of  every  child  in  the  United  States  as  free  public 
schools.  In  the  state  of  Ohio  fourteen  mills  on  the  dollar 
of  taxable  property  may  be  levied  for  educational  pur- 
poses ;  in  other  words :  to  teach  the  children.  The  law 
allows  a  one  mill  levy  for  the  maintenance  of  public 
libraries.  Is  it  right  to  create  a  demand  for  books  and 
then  not  supply  it  ?  Is  it  right  to  teach  children  to  read 
and  then  not  to  see  that  books  are  provided  for  them  to 
read  ?  It  may  be  said  that  the  home  supplies  this  need. 
Does  it?    What  is  the  Hbrary  in  the  average  home  in 


THE   INTELLECTUAL   LIFE    OF   THE   COMMUNITY      1 99 

the  rural  or  any  community?  I  need  not  outline  the 
motley  collection.  Possibly  an  atlas  and  dictionary, 
a  few  sensational  books,  such  as  "  The  Johnstown 
Flood,"  "  The  Eruption  of  Pelee,"  "  The  San  Francisco 
Earthquake,''  "  The  Lives  of  the  James  Brothers," 
bought  from  subscription  agents,  usually  for  the  sake 
of  charity  or  philanthropy ;  a  few  old  histories,  especially 
on  the  Civil  War ;  some  lives  of  war  generals  and  of  our 
martyred  presidents;  and  perhaps  a  book  or  two  con- 
taining a  hodge-podge  of  everything  from  legal  and 
social  forms  to  conundrums  and  fortune  telling.  Enough 
money  may  have  been  spent  on  such  a  collection,  for 
subscription  books  always  come  high,  to  have  provided 
wholesome  reading  for  the  developing  years  of  childhood. 
Some  parents  consider  such  provision  for  their  children 
as  an  extravagance;  while  others  are  willing  to  spend 
their  money  but  they  do  not  know  what  to  buy. 

Newspaper  and  magazine  selections  are  as  poorly  made, 
offering  very  Httle  worth  while  to  the  child.  Perhaps  a 
county  newspaper,  a  church  paper,  and  farmer's  maga- 
zine are  taken.  The  rural  free  delivery  is  now  adding 
a  daily  paper  and  in  some  cases  the  better  magazines. 
Enough  money  is  being  spent  by  some  of  our  farmers 
to  supply  their  families  with  good  periodical  hterature, 
if  the  expenditure  could  be  rightly  directed.  There 
should  be  frequent  'and  general  exhibits  of  books  and 
periodicals  suitable  for  the  farmer,  his  wife,  and  chil- 
dren. Such  exhibits  might  well  be  made  at  county  and 
state   fairs,  grange   meetings,  and   farmers'   institutes, 


200  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

in  district  schools  and  country  churches.  It  would 
make  a  fine  subject  for  the  county  teachers'  institute  and 
the  distributions  of  such  exhibits  could  be  made  through 
no  better  agency.  Books  and  magazines  have  been  con- 
sidered as  more  than  luxuries  in  the  country.  Money 
comes  in  in  small  quantities  and  is  carefully  spent  for 
necessities  or  for  the  gratification  of  vanity. 

The  cream  of  the  city  comes  from-the  country.  Emer- 
son says :  "  City  was  country  the  day  before  yester- 
day." What  does  he  mean  ?  The  city  dweller's  ances- 
tors all  came  from  the  country.  Why  does  the  third 
generation  born  in  the  city  feel  that  it  must  get  back 
to  the  soil?  Is  it  not  to  renew  exhausted  strength? 
If,  then,  the  strength  of  the  city  depends  on  the  stream 
coming  in  from  the  country,  is  it  not  essential  that  that 
stream  be  as  intelligent  as  possible?  And  how  can  this 
intelligence  be  given  if  not  at  least  in  part  through  books 
and  reading  ? 

If  lack  of  time  be  any  excuse  there  is  time  for  reading 
in  the  country.  When  the  country  boy  or  girl,  man  or 
woman,  is  through  with  the  necessary  work  the  ques- 
tion is  not  so  much  "  Where  shall  I  go  ?  "  as  "  What 
shall  I  do?  "  Does  this  not  account  for  much  of  the 
old-time  patchwork,  samplers,  and  knitting?  What 
stories  these  things  could  tell  of  keeping  the  mind 
balanced !  What  do  the  statistics  of  our  insane  asylums 
show  in  regard  to  country  life?  Enough  has  not  been 
done  to  relieve  its  monotony.  Is  there  any  one  thing 
beneath  the  dome  of  heaven  that  will  relieve  the  tedium 


THE   INTELLECTUAL   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY       20I 

of  existence  anywhere  so  much  as  the  distribution  of 
sufficient  literature  ? 

The  need  of  a  general  elevation  of  the  standards  of 
intelHgence  in  the  community  is  rather  strikingly  set 
forth  by  Professor  Carver  of  Harvard.  He  says,  in  sub- 
stance, in  an  address  delivered  before  the  New  England 
Country  Church  Association :  "  It  may  be  accepted 
as  a  general  law  that  the  land  of  the  country  will  pass 
more  and  more  into  the  hands  of  those  who  can  use  it  to 
the  best  advantage,  —  that  is,  into  the  hands  of  the  best 
farmers.  ...  No  miracle  is  going  to  happen  to  prevent 
this  result,  or  to  interfere  with  the  working  of  this  eco- 
nomic law.  .  .  . 

"  There  was  a  time  when  the  finance  ministers  of 
European  governments  were  hard  pressed  to  provide  a 
revenue  for  the  governments.  They  eventually  found 
that  the  best  way  to  get  adequate  support  for  the  govern- 
ment was  to  increase  the  prosperity  of  the  country. 
When  they  began  studying  how  to  make  the  country 
prosperous,  the  science  of  national  economy  or  political 
economy  was  born.  When  they  who  are  charged  with 
the  task  of  community  leadership  awaken  to  the  fact 
that  the  best  way  to  secure  adequate  support  is  to  make 
the  country  more  prosperous,  they  will  be  on  the  right 
road.  When  they  begin  studying  how  to  make  the 
country  more  prosperous,  the  science  of  country  economy 
will  be  born.  This  will  be,  for  our  rural  regions,  as  for- 
tunate an  event  as  the  birth  of  political  economy  was  for 
modern  governments. 


202  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

"  Of  course  there  should  be  continued  emphasis,  in 
all  our  teachings,  upon  the  plain  economic  virtues  of 
industry,  sobriety,  thrift,  practical,  scientific  knowledge, 
and  mutual  helpfulness ;  but  much  more  emphasis  than 
hitherto  should  be  placed  on  the  last  two.  Practical 
scientific  knowledge  of  agriculture,  and  mutual  helpful- 
ness in  the  promotion  of  the  welfare  of  the  rural  regions 
are  absolutely  essential.  .  .  . 

"  Organized  efforts  for  the  study  of  rural  economy, 
for  gaining  more  and  more  scientific  knowledge  of  agri- 
culture, for  the  practical  kind  of  brotherhood  which  shows 
itself  in  the  form  of  mutual  helpfulness  and  coopera- 
tion, in  the  form  of  decreasing  jealousy  and  suspicion, 
in  the  form  of  greater  public  spirit,  greater  alertness  for 
opportunities  for  promoting  the  public  good  and  building 
up  the  community,  in  helping  young  men  and  yoimg 
women  to  get  started  in  productive  work  and  in  home 
building,  in  helping  the  children  to  get  the  kind  of  train- 
ing which  will  enable  them  to  make  a  better  living  in 
the  community  Hfe  for  the  whole  community.''  .  .  . 

The  knowledge  which  any  community  may  develop 
in  reference  to  its  own  resources  and  problems  is  incom- 
plete without  that  larger  knowledge  which  comes  from 
relating  these  community  interests  to  the  wider  interests 
of  the  world  both  historically  and  geographically.  Ac- 
cordingly, extended  book  and  periodical  lists  have  been 
added  to  each  chapter  of  this  book  in  order  that  the  local 
interests  aroused  might  find  outlet  in  extended  reading 
reaching  out  into  the  larger  world.     It  is  to  be  hoped  that 


THE   INTELLECTUAL   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY      203 

these  book  lists  will  prove  helpful  and  suggestive,  that 
the  community  will  not  be  satisfied  until  in  large  meas- 
ure these  materials  and  many  others  are  provided  for 
the  general  community  use  in  a  permanent  community 
library. 

In  most  states  some  provision  is  being  made  for  supply- 
ing smaller  communities  with  traveling  Kbraries  from 
the  central  State  library.  "  Towns  having  under  500 
population  usually  cannot  support  their  own  public 
library.  The  best  thing  these  smaller  towns  can  do  is 
to  organize  a  Library  Association,  apply  to  the  proper 
state  authorities  for  a  traveling  library,  and  work  to 
build  up  a  school  Hbrary,  which  should  be  made  accessible 
to  all  and  during  vacations  also." 

The  first  step  in  organizing  a  local  community  library 
must  be  to  arouse  public  sentiment  in  its  favor. 

"  A  few  earnest  people  reaHzing  the  need  of  a  library, 
must  determine  that  the  people  of  their  community  shall 
have  the  benefit  of  free  books,  and  must  plan  and  work 
and  agitate  until  every  one  is  aroused  to  the  fact  that  this 
opportunity  is  for  them  and  for  their  children,  if  they 
will  but  take  it. 

"  Any  person  who  is  really  interested  in  establishing 
a  permanent  hbrary  will  first  secure  full  information  upon 
the  subject.  This  means  thorough  imderstanding  of 
the  State  law  under  which  Hbraries,  Associational  or 
Municipal,  may  be  established ;  knowledge  of  what  has 
been  done  in  other  communities  in  the  State ;  full  com- 
prehension of  local  conditions  and  of  the  sentiment  of  the 


204  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

people  upon  educational  matters.  Promoters  of  the 
library  movement  should  talk  or  correspond  with  Hbrary 
leaders  from  other  places,  and  should  get  the  opinions 
of  the  sanest  and  most  progressive  leaders  of  their  locality. 

^'  It  is  usually  possible  to  enlist  the  support  of  some 
woman's  club,  or  other  organization,  which  will  pledge 
its  services  to  the  library  cause.  It  will  be  wise  to  secure 
the  interest  of  some  such  organization  already  in  exist- 
ence, to  give  it  the  privilege  of  calling  the  first  public 
meeting  to  consider  the  library  question,  and  of  inviting 
the  cooperation  of  other  associations. 

"  It  is  a  mistake  to  keep  the  Kbrary  movement  in  the 
hands  of  one  club,  as  it  must  rely  upon  the  support  of  all 
the  people,  some  of  whom  are  usually  suspicious  of  the 
motives  of  any  limited  association.  The  honor  and 
privilege  of  starting  a  Hbrary  should  belong  to  the  person 
or  association  willing  to  forego  the  praise  which  such 
effort  deserves,  and  to  work  enthusiastically  and  tirelessly 
with  all  who  will  join  efforts  for  the  common  good." 

"  It  is  usually  best  to  organize  an  association  to  raise 
money  for  books,  interest  the  community  in  the  project, 
and  bring  the  matter  before  the  proper  authorities.  This 
organization  should  consist  of  men  and  women.  From 
the  beginning  it  should  be  understood  that  interest  in  the 
library  movement  is  not  limited  to  women.  Business 
men  and  taxpayers  are  needed  in  any  public  work  which 
must  depend  on  tax  support.  This  association  should 
later  give  place  to  the  Hbrary  board  appointed  under  the 
law.     It  may,  however,  continue  its  activities  in  raising 


THE   INTELLECTUAL   LIFE    OF   THE   COMMUNITY      205 

money  for  new  books,  and  should  be  a  force  behind  the 
library  so  long  as  it  is  needed. 

"  The  governing  body  of  the  community  may  appro- 
priate money  from  the  general  fund  for  the  first  year, 
but  should  thereafter  levy  a  Hbrary  tax  for  any  regular 
appropriation.  Usually  the  members  of  such  bodies 
are  very  willing  to  follow  public  sentiment  in  founding 
pubHc  enterprises,  but,  like  all  other  human  beings,  they 
are  governed  somewhat  by  their  prejudices,  and  should 
be  approached  by  people  whom  they  respect,  who  have 
tact  and  good  judgment.  An  enthusiastic  but  tactless 
hobby  rider  may  undo  months  of  careful  work.  In  most 
places  where  libraries  have  been  started  the  citizens  have 
raised  a  fund  or  bought  a  collection  of  books  and  offered 
them  to  the  public  if  the  council  would  agree  to  found  a 
permanent  library.  This  is  ordinarily  the  easiest  way 
to  secure  one. 

"  If  the  country  is  thickly  settled,  talk  to  the  farmers 
about  the  Kbrary  and  get  them  to  join  with  the  towns- 
people in  securing  a  library  for  town  and  country  alike, 
free  to  all  who  can  come  to  it.  When  the  Kbrary  is  per- 
manently established,  arrangements  should  be  made 
whereby  all  may  do  their  share  in  its  support.  .  .  . 

"  The  pubHcity  and  cooperation  committee  should 
supply  brief  articles  for  the  local  papers,  and  arrange 
for  a  '  Library  Sunday,'  upon  which  all  ministers  would 
agree  to  urge  the  importance  of  a  public  supply  of  good 
books  to  the  moral  welfare  of  the  community,  and  of  the 
use  of  good  books  in  the  home.    This  committee  should 


206  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

see  that  the  results  of  the  meeting  are  made  public,  and 
that  all  agencies  unite  in  supporting  the  library  move- 
ment. It  should  investigate  existing  collections  of  books 
and  what  remains  of  any  old  libraries  to  see  if  they  may 
be  merged  into  the  public  library. 

"  The  committee  on  ways  and  means  will  make  in- 
vestigations in  regard  to  rooms  or  buildings  available; 
cost  of  rent;  shelving  and  furniture;  cost  of  running 
the  library ;  probability  of  tax ;  condition  of  town  finances ; 
attitude  of  officials,  prominent  people;  and,  possibly, 
plan  for  meetings  and  entertainments  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Hbrary. 

"  The  committee  on  books  and  administration  should 
investigate  in  regard  to  selection  and  purchase  of  books, 
and  library  service  and  management. 

"  In  general,  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  takes 
time  to  create  pubHc  sentiment  of  any  lasting  worth; 
that  hasty  action  of  ill-formed  enthusiasts  will  probably 
not  result  in  the  establishment  of  a  permanent,  valuable, 
educational  institution;  that  it  is  unwise  to  force  any- 
thing upon  an  imwilHng  community ;  and  that  it  may  re- 
quire a  long  campaign,  patiently  and  tactfully  conducted, 
to  bring  the  people  to  cordial  support  of  a  Hbrary  project. 

"  It  is  not  worth  while  to  waste  time  arguing  with  the 
cranks  who  always  oppose  pubhc  improvement;  to 
listen  to  the  chronic  objector  to  taxes ;  or  to  give  much 
attention  to  those  who  know  from  sad  experience  with 
old  association  or  subscription  Hbraries  that  the  library 
wiU  fail.    The  ghost  of  an  old  Hbrary,  organized  before 


THE   INTELLECTUAL   LIFE    OF   THE   COMMUNITY      207 

the  State  Library  Law  was  passed,  will  rise  to  trouble 
organizers  of  the  new  enterprise.  A  modern  free  public 
library  differs  from  the  old  association  library  just  as 
the  modern  free  pubHc  school  differs  from  the  old 
'  select '  academy. 

"  Reasonable  objections  should  be  courteously  met  and 
answered.  The  most  earnest  supporters  of  the  library 
movement  will  be  among  the  broad-minded  men  of  self- 
education  who  realize  the  difficulties  in  this  method  and 
want  to  make  the  process  less  difficult ;  and  among  the 
parents  of  large  families  who  can  do  little  more  individu- 
ally than  to  meet  the  everyday  material  needs  of  their 
children,  and  welcome  a  cooperative  movement  which 
will  make  the  necessary  books  possible. 

"  It  may  as  well  be  understood  from  the  beginning 
that  it  will  cost  something  to  have  a  good  library.  It 
pays  to  start  right,  with  the  best  books,  and  modern 
methods.  The  association  should  raise  the  initial  book 
fund,  but  ordinarily  the  subscription  method  of  support 
should  cease  with  that.  People  tire  of  an  institution 
supported  by  begging. 

"  If  the  library  project  is  to  command  respect,  it  should 
be  on  a  business  basis  from  the  start,  and  should  not  be 
undertaken  until  the  community  can  afford  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Hbrary  should  not  be  regarded  as  a  luxury, 
and  its  estabhshment  postponed  from  year  to  year.  .  .  . 
The  time  will  never  come  when  a  live  community  ceases 
to  make  improvements;  and  a  library  movement  in  a 
dead  community  has  no  competitors  for  public  support. 


208  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

"  It  must  be  understood  that  the  library  is  to  be  a 
permanent  and  growing  institution  and  must  have 
proper  support,  if  it  is  to  be  successful.  The  hbrary 
should  have  an  assured  income.  It  should  have  reg- 
ular service  and  should  be  open  at  least  three  afternoons 
and  evenings  each  week. 

"  The  initial  expenses  for  shelving,  tables,  chairs, 
fixtures,  and  supphes  should  be  considered  separately. 
The  exact  cost  of  running  a  library  will  depend  upon 
local  conditions,  which  will  determine  the  cost  of  rent, 
heat,  light,  care  of  building  and  rooms,  and  possibly 
of  service.  The  other  regular  expenses  will  be  for  serv- 
ices, books,  binding,  periodicals,  stationery,  printing, 
supplies,  postage,  freight  and  express,  and  for  inci- 
dentals, including  insurance  and  repairs. 

"  Any  public-spirited  man  ought  to  be  willing  to  help 
to  maintain  a  pubhc  supply  of  good  books  at  the  rate 
of  ten  cents  for  every  $300  of  his  actual  wealth.  One 
third  of  a  mill  on  a  dollar  would  be  one  cent  on  $30,  ten 
cents  on  $300,  one  dollar  on  $3000.  Ordinarily  prop- 
erty is  assessed  at  from  50  to  90  per  cent  of  its  real 
value.  Assume  that  the  valuation  is  75  per  cent.  A 
$3000  house  would  be  assessed  for  $2250  and  the  annual 
tax  at  one  third  of  a  mill  would  be  75  cents,  and  for  this 
the  taxpayer  and  the  members  of  his  family  would  get 
all  the  books  they  could  read  in  twelve  months,  and  the 
children  would  have  the  benefit  of  the  references  in 
their  studies.  For  the  owner  of  a  modest  $1500  home 
the  one  third  of  a  mill  would  be  38  cents,  and  he  would 


THE   INTELLECTUAL  LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY      209 

get  in  return  the  use  of  hundreds  of  the  very  best  books 
and  magazines  for  himself  and  his  family.  Surely  this 
is  no  burden.  A  community  which  had  $350  a  year  for 
the  Hbrary  loaned  its  thousand  volumes  8000  times  in 
one  year.  Figure  the  cost  of  each  book  to  each  reader 
and  see  what  other  cooperative  plan  yields  better  re- 
turns on  the  investment."  ^  M.  E.  D. 

SURVEY  OF  THE  INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 

Are  there  women's  clubs  in  the  community  ?  If  so,  what  is  the 
character  of  the  programs,  miscellaneous,  or  one  or  two  subjects 
studied  in  the  year  ?  Are  the  women  interested  in  civic  affairs  ? 
Are  they  real  students  of  any  of  these  subjects?  Are  they  or- 
ganized in  civic  or  other  associations  for  the  betterment  of  con- 
ditions locally,  for  the  state,  and  nation?  Do  they  try  to  in- 
fluence legislation,  either  state  or  national  ? 

How  does  the  level  of  inteUigence  of  the  women  of  the  community 
compare  with  that  of  the  men  ?  Do  the  men  respect  women  as 
comrades  or  do  they  try  to  limit  them  to  a  certain  "sphere"? 
What  is  the  attitude  of  the  community  toward  children  ? 

Is  as  much  or  more  attention  given  to  their  upbringing  as  is 
shown  in  the  breeding  and  raising  of  fine  stock  ?  Do  parents  want 
their  children  to  have  better  advantages  than  they  themselves 
had  or  is  "what  was  good  enough  for  me  good  enough  for  my 
children"?  Is  the  desire  for  better  advantages  really  helpful 
to  the  children  ? 

Are  the  people  appealed  to  through  emotions  or  intellect  in  the 
church  services  ?  Are  there  any  lectures  or  lecture  courses  deal- 
ing with  serious  concerns  and  subjects  ? 

Is  there  a  college  or  any  institution  of  higher  learning  in  the 

1  The  above  suggestions  on  building  a  community  library  are  adapted, 
by  permission,  from  the  publications  of  the  Oregon  Library  Commission. 
P 


2IO  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

community  ?  If  so,  what  is  its  effect  on  the  intellectual  life  in 
general?  Has  there  at  some  previous  time  been  a  college  or 
academy  in  the  community  ?  If  so  what  impress  did  it  leave  on 
the  community? 

What  effect  do  the  recreations  and  sports  have  on  the  intel- 
lectual ideals  of  the  community  ? 

What  has  been  the  effect  of  the  telephone,  interurban  railway, 
and  rural  free  delivery  on  the  intellectual  development  of  the 
community  ? 

Is  there  centralization  of  public  schools  ?  If  so,  what  is  the  effect 
on  the  community  as  a  whole?  Are  there  tendencies  toward 
centralization  in  other  things;  e.g.,  libraries,  churches,  household 
economics,  farm  industries  ? 

Is  there  a  free  public  library  supported  by  tax  in  the  community  ? 
If  not  has  there  been  any  agitation  or  interest  toward  starting 
one  ?  Are  the  people  familiar  with  the  library  laws  of  their  state 
and  of  the  help  given  by  the  state  in  establishing  libraries  ?  Does 
the  Board  of  Education  furnish  supplementary  reading  for  the 
schools  ?    Are  state  traveling  libraries  used  in  the  community  ? 

What  are  the  usual  subjects  of  conversation  in  the  community  ? 
Is  it  confined  to  household  affairs,  the  crops  and  neighborhood 
gossip,  or  does  it  broaden  to  show  a  wide  field  of  intelligence  ? 

What  is  the  general  attitude  toward  money?  Do  people  care 
for  it  only  for  the  sense  of  possession,  or  do  they  intelligently  ap- 
preciate what  it  obtains?  What  effect  does  the  wealth  of  the 
community  have  on  its  general  inteUigence?  Are  people  so  ab- 
sorbed in  money  getting  that  they  have  no  time  for  the  things 
that  make  for  culture  and  refinement  ? 

What  books  are  mostly  read  in  the  community?  What  types 
of  books  are  found  in  the  homes  ?  What  periodicals  are  read  by 
the  people,  at  home,  or  in  pubHc  places,  of  any  sort  ?  Is  the  general 
level  of  intelligence  rising  or  falling  ?    Why  ? 

Is  anything  being  done  to  interest  boys  and  girls  in  the  problems 
of  the  conmaunity?    Do  the  people  say  of  their  community, 


THE   INTELLECTUAL   LIFE    OF   THE   COMMUNITY      211 

"There  is  nothing  here  for  the  ambitious  boy " ?  Is  this  true? 
Does  the  community  feel  any  of  the  currents  of  thought  from  the 
larger  life  of  the  state  and  nation  ? 

Are  there  any  of  the  old-time  "literary  societies  or  lyceums" 
in  the  community?  What  are  the  actual  sources  of  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  the  community  ?  Are  the  schools  real  intellectual 
forces  in  the  community  life  ?  Are  the  teachers  looked  upon  as 
intellectual  leaders  ?  If  not,  who  are  the  real  intellectual  leaders 
of  the  community  ?    Is  their  leadership  socially  desirable  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

American  Academy  of  Political  Science.     Annals,  Vol.  40.    March, 

1912. 
Anderson,  W.  L.    The  Country  Town.    A  study  in  rural  evolution. 
k    Bailey,  L.  H.     The  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  United  Stales. 
Bailey,  L.  H.     The  State  and  the  Farmer. 
Bailey,  L.  H.     The  Training  of  Farmers. 
Beard,  A.  P.     The  Story  of  John  Frederick  Oherlin. 
^    BuTTERFiELD,  K.  L.     Chapters  in  Rural  Progress. 
0'    Canfield,  J.  H.     Opportunities  of  Rural  Population  for  Higher 
Education. 
Carver,  T.  N.    Principles  of  Rural  Economics. 
Clark,  J.  B.     The  Distribution  of  Wealth. 

Cornell,  W.  S.     Health  and  Medical  Inspection  of  School  Children. 
\t^    Coulter,  J.  L.     Cooperation  among  Farmers,  the  Keystone  of  Rural 

Prosperity. 
p'     CuBBERLEY,  E.  P.    The  Improvement  of  Rural  Schools. 

Curtis,  H.  S.     The  Reorganized  School  Playground.     U.  S.  Bureau 

of  Education,  191 2,  Bulletin  16. 
DiNSMORE.     Teaching  a  Country  School. 
EscoTT,  T.  H.  S.     Society  in  the  Country  House. 
GiDDiNGS,  F.  H.     Descriptive  and  Historical  Sociology. 
Green,  J.  B.    Law  for  the  American  Farmer. 


212  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Hall,  G.  S.     Youth. 
fc^HAPGARD,  H.  R.    Rural  Denmark  and  its  Lessons. 
Harris,  H.  F.    Health  on  the  Farm. 
Kern,  O.  J.    Among  Country  Schools. 
McKeever,  W.  a.     Farm  Boys  and  Girls. 
Plunkett,  Sir  H.  C.    Ireland  in  the  New  Century. 
«^    Plunkett,  Sir  H.  C.     The  Rural  Life  Problem  in  the  United 

States. 
Powell,  E.  P.    How  to  live  in  the  Country. 
Raymond,  W.    English  Country  Life. 
Roads,  C.    Rural  Christendom. 
^    Robertson,  J.  W.     Conservation  of  Life  in  Rural  Districts. 
(Robertson,  J.  W.    Satisfactions  of  Country  Life. 
U.  S.  Experiment  Station.   Country  Life  Education.   U.  S.  Bureau 

of  Agriculture. 
Van  Hise,  C.  R.     The  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources  in  the 

United  States. 
Wilson,  W.  H.     The  Church  of  the  Open  Country. 
Wilson,  W.  H.     The  Evolution  of  the  Country  Community.    A 

study  in  religious  sociology. 
Wilson,  W.  H.    Quaker  Hill,   a  Sociological  Study.     Privately 

printed. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE   COMMUNITY  LIFE;   CURRICULUM   OF 
THE   COMMUNITY  SCHOOL 

Education  a  Fundamental  Agency  in  Rural  Life.  — 

It  is  quite  evident  that  while  several  agencies  enter  into 
the  movement  to  make  American  rural  life  more  whole- 
some and  more  humanly  satisfying  than  it  now  is,  we 
ought  to  be  able  to  point  to  some  one  agency  as  abso- 
lutely fundamental  to  the  solution.  Rural  Hfe  students 
agree  that  the  comparative  isolation  and  barrenness  of 
rural  life  must  be  overcome;  that  those  who  live  in 
rural  communities  must  become  better  organized  than 
they  are;  and  that  a  new  emphasis  must  be  placed 
on  ethical  and  aesthetic  ideaHsm  in  rural  districts. 

But  how  shall  this  be  brought  to  pass  ?  The  initiative 
must  come  from  the  open  country  itself.  This  calls  for 
a  leadership  such  as  is  now  seldom  found  in  rural  com- 
munities. The  demand  is  for  men  and  women  with  a 
vision  —  men  and  women  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
masterful  action,  and  thoroughly  prepared  to  cope  with 
the  difl&culties  of  a  rural  life  which  —  like  ours  —  is 
passing  from  a  period  of  exploitation  to  true  husbandry 
farming.  Properly  directed  education  alone  can  furnish 
this  leadership.     It,   then,  is  the  fundamental  agency 

necessary  to  the  success  of  the  rural  life  movement. 

213 


214  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

/  If  we  have  the  educated  men  and  women,  the  other  great 

problems  cannot  resist  solution.     The  farmers  will  then 

\  become  organized  and  so  enabled  to  hold  their  own 

;  against  the  centralized  interests  of  city   life;     to-day 

]  what  they  need  is  direction.     In  fact,  every  phase  of 

^Social,  economic,  and  spiritual  retardation  in  agricultural 

districts  may  be  expected  to  3deld  to  the  new  educated 

leadership. 

Agriculture  our  Dominant  Interest.  —  There  is  nothing 
more  fundamental  in  our  country  than  the  soil  and  what 
it  produces,  what  hves  under  it,  and  the  humanity  which 
in   last   analysis   draws  its   sustenance   from  the  soil. 
Those  who  labor  close  to  the  soil  are  the  chief  wealth 
f^makers  of  the  nation.     The  destiny  of  our  people  will 
/  rest  largely  with  the  men  and  women  of  the  farm.     We 
\  have  no  greater  or  more  dominant  interest  than  agri- 
culture. 

Any  form  of  education,  to  be  effective,  must  reflect 
the  daily  life  and  interests  of  the  community  where 
employed.  Since  agriculture  is  our  chief  primary  in- 
dustry, the  redirected  education  for  the  open  country 
must  be  agricultural  in  its  nature.  By  this  is  meant 
vastly  more  than  the  study  of  agriculture  as  a  school 
subject.  The  new  education  must  give  expression  to  at 
least  two  things :  (i)  good  scientific  farming,  rendering 
ample  returns  for  the  labor  expended;  and  (2)  a  rural 
social  life  satisfactory  to  those  Uving  it. 

Farming  as  an  occupation  has  not  been  very  remuner- 
ative.   This* statement  leaves  out  of  consideration  the 


THE   CURRICULUM    OF   THE    COMMUNITY   SCHOOL        215 

unearned  increment  in  land  values.     Science  in  educa-| 
tion  must  make  it  at  least  as  profitable  as  an  equal  in-  | 
vestment  would  be  in  the  city.     Otherwise  people  will 
leave  the  farm.     But  even  if  agriculture  be  made  more 
profitable  than  at  the  present  time,  this  alone  will  not  be 
sufficient  inducement  to  keep  a  large  productive  popu- 
lation on  our  farms.     Daily  life  there  must  first  be  made 
more  humanly  interesting,  more  desirable.     The  pros-j 
pector  for  precious  metals  will  remain  in  his  "  diggin's  " 
no  longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  gather  his  hoard ; 
he  will  then  hasten  away  to  meet  social  beings  of  his 
own  kind.     So  with  the  country  folk.     If  country  life; 
cannot  offer  the  simplest  social  satisfactions,  people  will ' 
go  where  they  can  get  them.     The  redirected  education 
with  which  we  are  concerned  in  these  pages  must  aim  * 
to  make  better  farmers  and  better  helpmeets  for  these   \ 
farmers,  must  make  the  occupation  more  remunerative,    j 
and  the  whole  life  more  satisfactory  and  free  from  city_„' 
domination. 

The  Rural  School  Arraigned.  —  There  was  a  time  when 
all  our  schools,  town  and  country  alike,  had  many  more 
things  in  common  than  now.  This  was  before  steam 
and  electric  power  gave  us  the  great  machine  age  with 
its  greatly  speciaHzed  city  life.  The  first  rural  teacher 
was  city  bred  and  city  trained,  had  city  ways  and 
sympathies,  and  brought  with  him  to  the  country  a  city 
course  of  study.  But  in  the  early  days  this  was  of 
little  consequence;  for  then  even  city  fife,  so-called, 
was  provincial  in  nature,  in  many  ways  scarcely  more 


2l6  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

than  an  overgrown  rural  life.  But  times  have  changed. 
Our  towns  have  become  mighty  centers  of  commerce 
and  manufacture.  The  needs  of  city  life  have  foimd 
expression  in  a  course  of  study  preparing  children  for 
the  varied  activities  there,  and  all  has  gone  well  with 
the  city.  But  what  about  the  country  schools?  They 
have  gone  right  on,  down  to  the  opening  of  the  present 
century,  using  a  course  of  study  formulated  for  children 
with  city  motives,  with  the  natural  result  that  vast 
numbers  of  farm  boys  and  farm  girls  have  been  trained 
-  away  from  the  country  instead  of  for  it. 

The  specific  charge  against  the  rural  school  is  this: 
(i)  it  has  drawn  too  much  of  its  substance  from  sources 
foreign  to  rural  needs ;  and  (2)  it  has  failed,  moreover, 
to  keep  pace  with  the  needs  of  our  rapidly  developing 
agricultural  life.  The  school  has  had  its  face  towards 
the  city.  Worse  still,  it  has  been  almost  at  a  standstill. 
Says  Mr.  Roosevelt's  Commission  on  Country  Life : 
"  The  schools  are  held  largely  responsible  for  ineffective 
farming,  lack  of  ideals,  and  the  drift  to  town.  This 
is  not  because  the  rural  schools,  as  a  whole,  are  decKning, 
but  because  they  are  in  a  state  of  arrested  development 
and  have  not  yet  put  themselves  in  consonance  with 
all  the  recently  changed  conditions  of  life."  The  great 
task  of  the  new  rural  teacher  is  to  put  the  school  in 
harmony  with  the  needs  and  time  and  place  of  present- 
day  life. 

A  Redirected  Curriculum  for  the  Rural  School.  — 
Fundamentally  the  boys  and  girls  of  rural  communities 


THE   CURRICULUM   OF   THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL       217 

have  the  same  instincts  and  capabilities  as  boys  and 
girls  who  live  in  the  cities;  and  of  course  all  school 
education,  whether  given  in  the  country  or  in  the  city, 
should  seek  to  bring  out  all  that  is  deepest  and  best  in 
life  as  a  whole ;  but  in  view  of  physical  conditions  the 
interests  of  city  children  and  country  children  are  greatly 
divergent.  City  children  learn  to  exhaust  their  energies 
and  have  their  pleasures  among  the  varying  and  dis- 
tracting scenes  and  conventionalities  of  the  city;  while 
the  country  children  under  proper  direction  find  their  J 
consuming  interests  in  nature,  in  field  and  meadow,  in  / 
orchard  and  garden — on  the  farm ;  and  if  led  by  teachers 
who  have  been  efficiently  prepared  in  rural  education,  - 
it  is  quite  certain  that  the  farm  children  will  grow  up 
in  love  with  nature  for  its  own  sake,  and  also  in  love  with 
the  farm  and  the  farm  place,  where  in  time  they  may 
find  the  greatest  opportunities  for  free  and  independent 
and  wholesome  living. 

This  is  interpreted  to  mean  that  some  subjects  which 
have  long  held  place  in  the  traditional  curriculum  are 
yielding  this  place ;  or,  at  least,  these  subjects  are  begin- 
ning to  receive  an  altered  emphasis.  New  subjects 
which  are  essential  to  agricultural  progress  are  finding 
important  places  in  the  new  curriculum.  Thus,  nature 
study,  elementary  agriculture,  several  forms  of  hand- 
craft, farm  accounts,  and  physical  education  are  begin- 
ning to  receive  consideration  in  progressive  schools. 

Second  in  importance  only  to  the  subjects  taught  is 
the  new  emphasis  to  be  laid  on  some  of  the  old  essentials. 


2l8  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

This  must  be  in  part  a  spiritualizing  emphasis,  in  part 
industrializing.  Lessons  in  literature  and  composition 
may  very  properly  emphasize  the  beauties  of  nature 
in  the  farm  environment,  thus  awakening  a  love  for 
life  in  the  country.  Geography  and  arithmetic  may  be 
made  to  deal  with  much  that  is  near  at  hand  and  used 
in  everyday  life.  It  is  more  to  the  point,  in  these  schools, 
to  make  a  Hberal  use  of  a  Babcock  milk  tester  than  to 
spend  much  time  with  an  astronomical,  or  other,  chart 
dealing  with  phenomena  taken  from  the  heavenly  blue. 
The  rural  schools  will  soon  be  teaching  less  of  stocks  and 
bonds,  cube  root,  and  Troy  weight ;  and  more  of  dairy 
problems  and  rotation  of  farm  crops,  spraying  mixtures, 
and  handy  farm  measures.  When  the  average  rural 
school  shall  get  the  great  vision  and  redirect  its  work 
into  these  new  channels,  the  new  educated  leadership, 
spoken  of  above,  will  soon  be  forthcoming. 

Denmark  an  Illustration  to  the  Point.  —  The  writer 
had  the  privilege,  a  few  years  ago,  to  spend  some  time 
in  a  model  Danish  rural  community.  On  the  one  side 
of  an  ample  highway  lay  the  schoolmaster's  home:  a 
rambling,  airy  house,  spick  and  span  without  and  within. 
Flower  beds,  graveled  walks,  and  rustic  seats  filled  the 
front  yard.  To  the  rear  lay  the  vegetable  garden  and 
experimental  plot,  in  which  the  teacher  and  children 
worked  together  while  the  earth  preached  her  sermons 
in  their  ears  and  made  them  strong  in  their  love  to  dwell 
close  to  nature's  heart. 

Just  beyond  the  master's  home  lay  the  schoolhouse 


THE   CURRICULUM   OF   THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      219 

in  ample  grounds.  The  love  of  nature  was  apparent 
ever3rwliere,  both  in  planting  and  in  care  of  planted 
things.  On  the  playgrounds  were  erected  simple  gymnas- 
tic apparatus  for  both  boys  and  girls.  The  Dane  believes 
with  all  his  heart  in  the  function  of  play,  and  he  realizes 
that  the  physical  development  of  country  children  does 
not  come  one  whit  nearer  perfection  than  in  the  cities. 
The  schoolroom  was  well  ventilated  and  had  an  abun- 
dance of  light.  But  of  chief  interest  was  the  subject 
.matter  offered  in  this  school.  While  the  so-called  es- 
sentials were  taught  in  a  mosV  thorough  manner,  the 
farm  subjects,  after  all,  formed  the  cQjg^  of  the  curricu- 
lum. Nature  study  in  its  truest  and  broadest  ^form  was 
here,  elementary  agriculture,  farm  accounting,  and  first 
steps  in  all  those  things  which  make  the  Danes  the  most 
scientific  agriculturaHsts  in  the  world.  The  Danes^ 
have  learned  to  love  nature  for  its  own  sake,  rather  than 
for  the  money  to  be  got  out  of  it.  The  farm  is  home. 
They  have  been  taught  to  prefer  it  to  the  city.  In 
Denmark  there  is  no  danger  of  a  cityward  exodus.  The 
Danish  farmers  have  solved  the  problems  we  are  now 
facing.  Their  agriculture  is  scientific ;  their  social  and 
economic  organizations  of  a  cooperative  nature  are 
unexcelled.  Denmark  has  an  educated  rural  leadership ; 
and  what  is  of  greatest  interest  to  us,  the  redirected 
country  schools  have  furnished  this  leadership. 

Now,  while  it  is  neither  desirable  nor  wise  to  transplant 
to  our  shores  school  systems  taken  from  European 
countries,  yet  such  countries  can  teach  us  lessons  of 


220  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

greatest  value.  Denmark  was  forced  to  do  its  best 
industrially  and  economically  on  account  of  disastrous 
war  and  cruel  tariff  discrimination.  We  have  had  no 
such  disaster.  But  at  this  time,  with  the  shifting  in  our 
population,  and  rural  instability,  we  can  well  profit 
by  what  others  have  done  and  substitute  a  virile  teHc 
policy  for  the  headless  genetic  system  under  which  we 
have  long  been  living. 

Nature  Environment  the  Background  of  the  Re- 
directed Course  of  Study.  —  By  this  time  it  will  appear 
clear  that  the  nature  environment  must  play  a  leading 
role  in  the  work  of  the  rural  school.  Certainly  it  is  true 
that  there  can  be  no  really  successful  hving  in  the  country 
if  the  individual  happens  to  be  out  of  harmony  with 
the  wonderful  phenomena  of  nature  round  about  him. 
Those  who  get  the  most  out  of  country  life  live  close  to 
nature.  They  know  and  love  the  created  things  — 
know  field  and  stream,  weather  and  soil,  fish  and  birds 
and  insects.  The  really  good  farmers  are  great  natural- 
ists. 

With  us,  rural  children  have  lived  largely  in  the  very 
heart  of  nature  and  yet  remained  strangers  there. 
The  Danish  children  study  blade  and  leaf  and  flower 
from  earliest  infancy.  This  is  the  work  of  the  school 
and  is  begun  while  the  child  mind  is  plastic,  and  sym- 
pathetic and  loving.  Such  children  are  never  in  danger 
of  being  turned  out  by  the  school,  shrewd,  calculating 
men  who  own  the  soil  chiefly  for  the  money  they 
can  wring  out  of  it.     In  our  country  we  are  unfortunately 


THE   CURRICULUM   OF    THE   COMMUNITY    SCHOOL      221 

prone  to  judge  things  by  the  commercial  standard.  The 
so-called  "  practical  "  traits  are  inherent  in  us.  Here 
begins  the  work  of  the  new  teacher.^  He  must  be  able 
to  take  the  rural  child  in  its  own  little  world  and  lead 
it  along  the  pathway  of  life,  directing  its  native 
adaptabihties,  sentiments,  and  powers,  and  there  develop 
in  the  child  breast  a  sympathy  with  its  environment, 
and  in  the  child  mind  an  understanding  of  nature's 
ways  —  then,  once  awakened  to  the  surpassing  beautiies 
of  rural  environments,  the  American  boy  and  girl  will 
no  longer  be  in  danger  of  deserting  the  farm  for  the 
man-made  ghtter  of  the  city. 

The  Rural  School  and  Nature  Study.  —  Nature  study 
should  form  the  background  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
rural  school  curriculum.  This  may  be  made  clear  by 
outlining  briefly  the  specific  values  of  the  subject, 
viz,  economic,  aesthetic,  social-ethical,  religious,  and 
educational.^ 

Economic.  —  By  the  time  they  are  ready  for  concrete 
agriculture  the  children  will  be  familiar  with  the  common 
goods  in  nature  and  with  its  evil  things.  They  should 
by  that  time  know  the  value  of  pure  air  and  pure  water, 
the  influence  of  sheltering  forests  and  shade  trees,  the 
importance  to  life  on  the  farm  of  beneficent  birds,  insects, 
and  batrachians.  They  should,  on  the  other  hand,  be 
familiar  with  the  pests  constantly  menacing  farm  life, 
such  as  destructive  insects,  birds,  noxious  weeds,  and 

^See  "The  American  Rural  School,"  pp.  14-15. 
2  "  The  American  Rural  School,"  pp.  156-161. 


es    1 
iU    / 


222  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

dangerous  vegetable  diseases.  This  phase  of  nature 
study  appeals  strongly  to  farm  interests,  and  the  effect 
is  to  draw  ever  closer  the  ties  which  bind  the  school  and 
home  through  kindred  interests.  This  will  give  us 
naturalist  farmers. 

Esthetic.  —  The  teacher  must  bring  the  children 
under  the  spell  of  the  sublime  in  nature.  The  small, 
still  voice  of  nature  should  be  permitted  to  commune 
with  teacher  and  children  through  beautiful  flowers  and 
waving  grasses,  sheltering  shrubs  and  spreading  trees. 
This  can  be  realized  only  through  the  teacher^s  digging 
and  planting  side  by  side  with  the  children.  Here, 
amidst  the  earth  smells  and  the  calling  of  nature,  they 
will  become  strong  in  their  love  to  live  close  to  nature's 
heart.     This  will  give  us  permanent  country  dwellers. 

Social  and  Ethical.  —  A  deep-seated  respect  for  social 
and  ethical  law  is  needed  in  our  country.  The  sooner 
children  learn  that  they  have  social  and  moral  obliga- 
tions which  are  bound  to  be  respected,  the  better  it  is 
for  them.  Girls  and  boys  have  a  certain  amount  of 
energy  which  is  bound  to  get  an  outlet  somehow;  if 
early  led  to  love  nature,  they  will  become  its  protectors. 
Such  children  will  not  vandalize  nature;  when  grown 
up  they  are  sure  to  become  good,  law-abiding  members  of 
society.     This  makes  for  a  morally  sound  citizenship. 

Religious.  —  To  love  nature  is  to  love  nature's  God. 
The  teacher's  manifest  opportunity  is  to  take  advantage 
of  the  still  voice  in  nature  to  reach  the  inner  recesses 
of  the  child  soul,  to  instill  there  a  love  for  well  doing  in 


THE   CURRICULUM   OF   THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      223 

looking  after  the  happiness  of  God's  created  things, 
thereby  attaining  the  child's  happiness  and  for  himself 
the  crown  of  life.  This  makes  for  a  religious  country 
folk. 

Educational.  —  While  the  naturaHstic  tendencies  in 
education  have  been  the  slow  growth  of  ages,  we  have 
at  last  come  to  realize  that  scholarship  for  scholarship's 
sake  alone  is  untenable.  The  arts  and  sciences  that  do 
not  affect  the  minds  and  habits  of  children  in  a  way  to 
furnish  them  with  an  increased  disposition  for  service 
can  no  longer  be  upheld.  Nature  study  is  doing  more 
than  any  other  subject  to  overcome  this  disproportion 
between  the  theoretical  and  practical  in  school  Hfe. 
This  fits  education  to  the  needs  of  man,  instead  of  man 
to  the  school. 

The  discussion  of  values  reveals  the  comprehensive- 
ness of  nature  study.  The  first  five  years  in  school 
should  generally  be  devoted  to  the  inspirational  and 
general  phases,  leaving  the  more  concrete  work  to  the 
last  three  years  of  the  course.  This  may  find  expres- 
sion in  beautifying  school  grounds  and  home  grounds, 
in  making  school  and  home  gardens,  and  school  experi- 
mental plots,  and  in  practical  agriculture. 

Nature-study  Agriculture  in  the  Schools.  —  Agri- 
culture as  taught  in  many  schools  to-day  gets  too  much 
emphasis  on  the  so-called  "  practical  "  and  "  useful  " 
phases  of  the  subject,  to  the  detriment  of  its  all-important 
background  —  the  nature  environment.  We  can  never 
lay  too  much  stress  upon  this  fact.    There  are  those 


224  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

who  have  taken  up  agriculture  as  a  concession  to  farm- 
ers and  farming  when,  by  very  nature,  it  should  always 
have  been  part  of  the  school  curriculum.  Such  teachers 
have  hastened  to  make  it  a  dollars-and-cents  study; 
regardless  whether  or  not  the  children  had  the  prepara- 
tion, gleaned  from  contact  with  the  great  out-of-doors, 
to  make  their  study  from  the  point  of  view  of  little 
naturalists.  Dr.  L.  H.  Bailey,  speaking  on  this  subject, 
says :  "I  would  not  approach  the  subject  primarily 
from  the  occupational  point  of  view,  but  from  the  edu- 
cational and  spiritual ;  that  is,  the  man  should  know  his 
work  and  his  environment.  The  mere  giving  of  informa- 
tion about  agricultural  objects  and  practices  can  have 
very  little  good  result  with  children.  The  spirit  is 
worth  more  than  the  letter.  Some  of  the  hard  and  dry 
tracts  on  farming  would  only  add  one  more  task  to  the 
teacher  and  the  pupil,  if  they  were  introduced  to  the 
school,  making  the  new  subject  in  time  as  distasteful 
as  arithmetic  and  grammar  often  are."  ^ 

It  was  suggested  above  that  the  general  phases  of 
nature  study  should  occupy  the  pupiFs  attention  for  the 
first  five  years  in  school,  to  be  followed  in  the  last  three 
years  with  agriculture,  or  more  correctly  speaking, 
nature-study  agriculture.  It  would  be  unfortunate  at 
any  time  to  lose  sight  of  the  nature-study  phases; 
although,  of  course,  the  agricultural  application  must 
become  more  amd  more  apparent  as  the  years  advance. 
The  entire  eight  years'  course  may  be  considered  as  a 
1  "  The  Nature-Study  Idea,"  p.  98. 


THE   CURRICULUM   OF   THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      2  2$ 

cumulative  growth,  unmarked  by  any  break  to  show 
where  nature  study  ends  and  agriculture  begins. 

The  teaching  cannot  be  limited  to  a  textbook  or 
manual,  although  these  are  essential  enough  as  leading 
threads  for  the  last  year  or  so.  Agriculture  must  be 
taught  in  the  great  laboratory  of  nature.  The  school/ 
ground,  including  experimental  plot  and  garden,  must 
come  first.  Then  there  are  orchards  and  cornfields 
and  meadows  which  can  be  used ;  and  com  and  cereals, 
barnyard  fowls  and  other  animals  to  be  brought  to  school 
and  studied.  Some  one-teacher  schools,  to  the  writer's 
knowledge,  find  time  to  make  their  grounds  beautiful, 
test  all  seed  corn  for  the  district,  bud  all  the  peach  trees 
required  to  plant  the  orchards  of  the  whole  countryside, 
grow  corn  and  vegetables  for  the  annual  contest,  and 
still  have  an  abundance  of  time  for  the  other  school 
tasks.  When  such  able  teachers  are  found  every- 
where home  and  school  will  speedily  reach  an  under- 
standing. 

Gardens  and  Experimental  Plots.  —  Every  rural 
school  should  stand  in  its  own  laboratory.  This  means 
a  large  school  ground,  ample  enough  for  play,  with  room 
for  flower  beds  and  trees,  a  common  experimental  plot 
and  garden  with  individual  plots  for  all  the  children. 
It  is  just  as  reasonable  to  expect  good  results  in  chemistry 
by  merely  reading  the  experiments  from  textbooks  as 
to  study  agriculture  from  books  without  gardens  and 
experimental  plots. 

Unfortunately,  lack  of  space  forbids  the  going  into 
Q 


226  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

details  on  the  interesting  subject  of  experimental  plots 
and  gardens.  This  much  must  suffice :  every  rural 
school  should  have  some  sort  of  an  experimental  plot, 
even  if  no  more  than  a  few  feet  square.  Something  can 
be  done  here  in  budding  and  grafting  trees,  layering 
shrubs,  etc.,  and  in  the  study  of  crop  rotation,  and  the 
use  and  effect  of  fertilizers.  If,  for  any  reason,  such  as 
short  school  years  and  difficulty  in  caring  for  it  during 
the  summer  vacation,  a  school  garden  should  seem  im- 
practicable, a  home  garden  may  be  made  to  answer  the 
purpose.  This  plot  is  cultivated  under  directions  from 
the  teacher,  who  cooperates  with  the  pupils'  parents, 
who  in  turn  lend  guidance  and  encouragement  to  the 
work.  In  the  fall  a  reckoning  is  made  of  the  summer's 
work,  a  competitive  exhibit  is  held  at  the  schoolhouse, 
and  possibly  the  winning  corn,  potatoes,  etc.,  are  sent 
to  the  country  fair. 

Boys'  and  Girls'  Industrial  Clubs.  —  No  expedient 
made  use  of  in  recent  years  by  educators,  in  their  efforts 
to  solve  the  farm  problem,  has  met  with  such  universal 
approval  as  has  the  industrial  club.^  It  appeals  to  the 
average  farmer's  self-interest.  He  is  quick  to  recognize 
its  value  by  tangible  results.  Likely  enough,  he  has 
experienced  defeat  in  the  corn  contest  at  the  hands  of 
his  own  sons,  whose  com  commands  $2  per  bushel,  while 
his  own  brings  only  the  regular  market  price.  Such 
farmers  will  become  stanch  supporters  of  the  schools, 
and  work  for  a  better  cooperation  than  heretofore. 
1  "  The  American  Rural  School,"  pp.  222-223. 


THE   CURRICULUM    OF    THE    COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      227 

Every  rural  school  should  have  a  live  industrial  club. 
The  influence  of  such  an  organization  can  scarcely  be 
overestimated.  The  power  of  observation  is  developed 
through  watching  growing  crops,  or  by  studying  the 
chemistry  of  cookery.  It  means  a  broadening  of  view, 
through  contact  with  others  in  friendly  rivalry  at  the 
contests  or  while  upon  excursions  to  other  schools. 
The  club,  finally,  gives  a  spirit  of  independence  and 
mastery  engendered  in  this  conquest  of  real  things. 

The  activities  of  the  "  growing "  clubs  should  be 
limited  only  by  natural  restrictions.  The  staple  crops 
of  the  particular  section  of  country  concerned  would 
naturally  be  emphasized.  Thus  corn,  cotton,  wheat, 
sugar  beets,  fruit,  and  potatoes  may  receive  the  attention 
of  the  growers,  according  to  locality.  But  club  work 
can  be  extended  profitably  to  other  activities  as  well. 
The  teacher  may  organize  clubs  in  cooking,  fruit  and 
vegetable  preserving,  floriculture,  and  other  lines  of 
domestic  science  and  manual  training. 

The  Community's  Share  in  Such  Work.  —  Boys'  and 
girls'  clubs  offer  exceptional  common  ground  on  which 
home  and  school  can  meet.  Work  in  cookery  and  sewing, 
or  in  corn  growing  and  horticulture,  naturally  projects 
itself  right  into  the  home  and  farm  place.  Fathers  and 
mothers  are  bound  to  become  responsive  to  such  a 
movement,  as  they  cannot  help  seeing  in  it  work  of 
greatest  mutual  concern.  Little  by  little,  there  grows 
up  a  community-wide  interest  in  the  work  of  the  school. 
The  teacher  from  this  moment  becomes  a  community 


228  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

leader.  The  whole  is  fraught  with  great  possibilities: 
(i)  a  sentiment  will  develop,  ending  with  the  com- 
munity's getting  the  best  possible  school;  (2)  the  dis- 
cussions and  lectures  given  in  connection  with  the  club 
exhibits  and  contests  will  awaken  a  desire  for  more  knowl- 
edge on  the  part  of  the  patrons;  and  (3)  the  old  way 
of  living  will  become  revolutionized  through  the  intro- 
duction of  extension  courses,  which  may  be  expected 
to  effect  marked  changes  in  home  life  as  well  as  com- 
munity life. 

Manual  Training  and  Domestic  Science.  —  Many  a 
young  man  or  young  woman  who  has  left  the  farm  has 
done  so  because  life  there  seemed  but  one  monotonous 
round  of  manual  labor,  devoid  of  every  incentive  to  mental 
growth.  Our  country  youth  have  not  always  been  taught 
the  difference  between  manual  labor  and  manual  train- 
ing. The  boys  learn  early  enough  the  correct  use  of 
hoe  and  spade,  plow  and  harrow,  but  it  is  all  work  — 
hard,  bone-splitting  work.  The  girls  wash  and  bake, 
milk  and  churn,  becoming  day-long  drudges.  Hard  work, 
long  days,  aching  backs,  a  monotonous  round  lasting 
from  starshine  to  starshine,  tell  the  story  of  some  farm 
communities. 

The  school  has  a  great  opportunity  right  here.  The 
':  sordid  and  deadening  in  farm  life  is  pretty  sure  to  con- 
tinue until  the  school  shall  be  able  to  supplant  it  with 
a  larger  outlook  on  life,  brought  about  through  the  in- 
troduction of  many  home  conveniences  for  the  women, 
and  modern  labor-saving  appliances  for  the  men.     The 


THE  CURRICULUM  OF  THE  COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      229 

school  will  have  to  speak  through  the  children,  demon- 
strating that  the  farm  community  can  have  the  use  of 
almost  every  modern  convenience  now  found  in  the  city. 

But  more  than  this,  the  work  of  the  school  is  to  in^  | 
fuse  into  the  old  tasks  a  new-bom  interest  sprung  from  j 
a  union  of  head,  heart,  and  hand.  This  contemplates 
manual  training  for  boys  and  domestic  science  for  girls. 
The  purpose  may  be  stated  thus :  (i)  the  adaptation  of 
manual  and  muscular  energy  to  the  end  that  farm  pur- 
suits may  become  more  skilled  and  scientific;  and 
(2)  the  recognition  of  the  beautiful  as  well  as  the  practical 
in  material  creation,  to  the  end  that  farm  Hfe  may  be- 
come more  attractive  and  more  beautiful,  and  better 
worth  hving.^  Many  schools  are  even  now  adding  a  new 
dignity  to  farm  tasks,  creating  an  eagerness  and  love 
for  work  which  before  seemed  sordid  and  common- 
place ;  and  proving  that  what  once  was  a  Hfe  of  drudgery 
can  be  made  a  beautiful,  scientific  occupation. 

Physical  Education  and  Hygiene.  —  Possibly  the 
greatest  responsibihty,  as  well  as  greatest  opportunity, 
of  the  rural  teacher  is  connected  with  the  physical 
education  of  the  children  and  the  health  and  sanitation 
of  the  community.  Because  of  the  advantage  of  an 
abundance  of  pure  air,  large  playgrounds,  and  long, 
healthful  walks,  it  is  generally  supposed  that  the  health 
of  country  children  needs  no  looking  after.  Not  only 
is  this  incorrect,  for  such  children  prove  to  be  no  more 
exempt  from  physical  weakness  and  disease  than  city 
^  "The  American  Rural  School,"  p.  241. 


230  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

children,  but  country  people  as  a  whole  are  surprisingly 
ignorant  on  the  subject  of  personal  hygiene  and  home 
sanitation.  Such  startling  disclosures  of  unsanitary 
conditions  were  made  to  his  Commission  on  Country 
Life  that  President  Roosevelt  felt  constrained  to  em- 
phasize this  in  a  special  message  to  Congress  in  1909. 
After  speaking  of  other  country  needs  he  continues: 
"  To  these  may  well  be  added  better  sanitation ;  for 
easily  preventable  diseases  hold  several  million  country 
people  in  the  slavery  of  continuous  bad  health."  ^ 

The  teacher  has  a  double  task  to  perform:  (i)  he 
must  look  after  the  physical  development  and  health 
of  the  individual  child  in  school ;  and  (2)  he  must  spread 
the  gospel  of  good  health  and  sanitation  to  the  whole 
community.     Such  is  the  work  of  the  new  school. 

Of  first  importance  to  the  teacher  is  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  relation  of  the  child's  physical  condition 
to  school  efficiency.  It  is  now  clearly  demonstrated 
that  failure  in  studies,  general  apathy  and  dullness,  ex- 
treme nervousness,  and  even  viciousness  on  the  part  of 
many  children  are  traceable  to  the  existence  of  chronic 
ailments  or  to  minor  defects  of  a  remediable  nature. 
Every  rural  teacher  should  be  on  the  alert  to  discover 
defects  in  hearing  and  eyesight,  and  read  the  many  signs 
of  adenoidal  conditions,  nervous  irritabiHty,  etc.,  so 
common  in  school  children.  Having  found  the  cause 
of  trouble  he  must  have  the  courage  to  insist  upon  cor- 
rection. Every  rural  teacher  must  be  his  own  physical 
* "  Report  of  the  Commission  on  Country  Life,"  pp.  100-103. 


THE   CURRICULUM    OF    THE   COMMUNITY    SCHOOL      23 1 

inspector,  which  means  that  he  must  be  able  to  recognize 
the  symptoms  of  disease  common  to  children,  such  as 
diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  whooping  cough,  and 
mumps,  and  then  take  immediate  action  upon  discovery. 
He  must  have  some  knowledge  of  diseases  known  to  be 
caused  by  germs  and  should  take  every  precaution  pos- 
sible to  minimize  the  danger  of  attack  by  keeping  the 
schoolroom  well  ventilated  and  scrupulously  clean, 
disinfecting  floors,  desks,  and  books  frequently.  This 
knowledge  should  be  given  the  children  through  daily 
lessons,  and  so  emphatically  that  it  will  reach  the  home 
and  do  good  there. 

The  teacher  must  spread  the  gospel  of  good  health 
and  sanitation  to  the  whole  community.  In  the  country, 
typhoid  fever,  malaria,  ague,  and  pneumonia  crave  many 
victims  annually.  Improper  drainage,  impure  water, 
and  poor  ventilation  are  some  of  the  causes  conspiring 
to  heap  these  afflictions  on  our  farm  population.  The 
teacher  who  looks  after  the  children's  health  in  school 
and  trains  them  in  more  sanitary  habits,  will  be  able  — 
if  tactful  —  to  consult  with  and  advise  the  parents,  to 
the  end  of  securing  better  conditions. 

Supervised  Play  and  School  Morals.  —  Physical  edu- 
cation has  a  legitimate  place  in  every  rural  school. 
This  manifests  itself  through  the  agencies  of  manual 
training,  play,  gymnastics,  and  athletics.  Of  these 
manual  training  has  been  sufficiently  emphasized  else- 
where. Gymnastics  and  athletics  may  also  be  dis- 
missed with  a  word,  as  they  have  been  discussed  fully 


232  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

in  another  chapter  of  the  book.  Country  children  are 
inclined  to  be  ungainly  and  awkward,  very  often  un- 
shapely, bespeaking  strength  without  the  essential  req- 
uisites of  harmony  and  beauty.  Their  shuffling  foot- 
steps and  ungainly  bearing  is  proof  of  disproportionate 
physical  development.  A  few  simple  gymnastic  ex- 
ercises, informally  given,  will  do  much  toward  straight- 
ening crooked  knees  and  flat  shoulders.  Some  inex- 
pensive gymnastic  apparatus  should  have  place  on  every 
school  ground  in  the  country.  Athletics  may  be  em- 
ployed in  rural  districts  chiefly  as  incidental  to  de- 
veloping a  more  interesting  and  attractive  community 
Hfe. 

Supervised  play  in  the  school  is  now  reaUy  a  part  of 
the  curriculum.  Not  alone  is  play  a  natural  relief  from 
the  enslavement  of  labor,  but  it  is  a  sort  of  preparation 
for  the  activities  to  be  entered  upon  later  in  Hfe.  The 
wise  teacher  will  encourage  wholesome  outdoor  games, 
going  so  far  as  to  teach  new  games  and  in  other  ways 
supervise  the  playground  activities.  School  children 
who  are  left  to  their  own  devices  often  yield  to  immoral 
suggestion  and  learn  vicious  habits.  Nothing  is  so  effec- 
tive in  keeping  mind  and  body  pure  as  interesting  games 
and  plenty  of  wholesome  physical  exercise. 

^New  Leaven  in  the  Old  Subjects.  —  In  the  foregoing 

\  paragraphs  nature  study  has  been  pointed  to  as  the  sub- 
stantial background  of  the  rural  school  curriculum. 
From  it  agriculture  should  develop  as  a  concrete  expres- 
sion of  the  practical.     Manual  training  and  domestic 


THE   CURRICULUM    OF    THE   COMMUNITY    SCHOOL      233 

science  are  intended  to  add  dignity  to  household  tasks,  / 
making  these  less  arduous  and  giving  a  new  and  broader 
outlook  on  life.  These  subjects  are  in  a  sense  recent 
additions  to  the  curriculum,  although  nature  study  in 
some  form  has  long  had  place  in  many  of  the  better  / 
schools.  Now,  to  turn  to  the  other  subjects  taught  in 
the  average  school,  it  is  good  doctrine  to  state  that  so 
far  as  these  express  the  activities  and  needs  of  the  com- 
munity they  answer  an  educative  purpose;  but  so  far 
as  they  deal  with  things  foreign  in  time  and  place  to 
the  rural  community,  they  fail  of  such  a  purpose. 

We  reemphasize  here  that  the  general  interests  of 
children  are  the  same  wherever  they  may  live;  hence, 
the  fundamental  elements  are  the  same  in  the  education 
of  both  country  and  city  children.  In  local  application 
only  do  they  differ.  For  example,  the  same  general 
teachings  and  principles  of  geography  and  arithmetic 
hold  good  for  both;  the  local  appHcation  only  should 
vary  with  community  needs.  To  further  make  this  point 
clear:  agriculture  concerns  itself  not  only  with  the 
production  of  raw  materials,  but  with  placing  these  in 
the  hands  of  the  manufacturer  or  consumer.  Here 
agriculture  overlaps  with  geography.  Thus  the  geog- 
raphy taught  in  rural  schools  should  lay  particular  stress 
on  the  agricultural  phases.  These,  among  other  things, 
include  a  study  of  land  and  water  forms  of  the  home 
place;  composition  of  the  soil;  weather,  temperature, 
and  rainfall;  and  elementary  industrial  geography, 
under  such  captions  as :    (i)  the   farm  a   commercial 


234  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

center,  (2)  the  history  of  the  development  of  the  farm, 
and  (3)  the  industries  of  the  community.  Much  the 
same  can  be  said  of  arithmetic.  One  sees  but  little  profit 
in  farm  boys'  laboring  over  intricate  problems  in  stocks 
and  bonds  and  cube  root,  or  struggling  with  weights 
and  measures  which  tradition  alone  has  kept  in  the 
books.  Much  better  select  the  problem  material  from 
such  practical  themes  as  these:  reckoning  farm  crops, 
threshing  and  harvesting  problems,  cost  of  growing  crops, 
dairy  problems,  poultry,  fencing,  etc.^  In  a  similar  way 
history  and  civics  may  devote  a  reasonable  amount  of 
time  to  local  rural  government  in  its  many  phases.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  other  subjects  in  the  course  of 
study ;  they  can  all  be  taught  with  enough  of  the  farm 
content  to  adapt  them  to  rural  civilization. 

Study  of  Rural  Life  in  the  School.  —  The  needs  of  rural 
life  should  be  taught  in  the  schools.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
dignify  such  study  either  as  rural  sociology  or  as  rural 
economics.  It  may  all  be  done  in  an  informal  way  in 
connection  with  other  subjects.  A  good  time  for  these 
discussions  is  the  daily  opening  exercise,  and  such 
topics  may  form  the  central  theme  for  the  Friday 
afternoon  exercises.  Best  adapted  of  all  for  these  dis- 
cussions, perhaps,  is  the  weekly  Hterary  society  or  lyceum, 
in  which  the  teacher  must  be  a  leading  spirit.  Here  the 
school  and  community  meet  on  even  terms.  Patrons 
as  well  as  children  will  attend.  Surely,  there  is  no  better 
time  or  place  than  this  to  consider  subjects  of  vital  im- 
*  See  Jessie  Field's  "  Farm  Arithmetic." 


THE   CURRICULUM   OF   THE   COMMUNITY    SCHOOL      235 

portance  to  the  farm!  Let  the  discussions  range  over 
the  whole  field  of  cooperative  buying  and  selling  organi- 
zations, better  means  of  transportation  and  communi- 
cation, farmers'  organizations  and  clubs,  farm  labor, 
and  public  health. 

The  curriculum  as  outlined  in  these  pages,  when 
properly  taught,  will  put  the  student  in  harmony  with 
his  environment  and  prepare  him  for  the  leadership 
which  is  necessary  before  the  great  problem  of  life  in 

the  open  country  can  be  solved. 

H.  W.  F. 

SURVEY    OF    THE    COMMUNITY    WITH    REFERENCE    TO 
THE  CURRICULUM   OF  THE  SCHOOL 

What  is  meant  by  the  rural  life  movement  ?  Do  you  distinguish 
between  this  movement  and  the  "back  to  the  farm"  movement  ? 
—  Bailey's  Country  Life  Movement,  pp.  1-2,  23-26. 

Distinguish  between  "  conservation,"  as  generally  understood, 
and  the  rural  life  movement.  —  Plunkett's  Rural  Life  Problem^ 
pp.  27-32. 

Enumerate  and  study  the  main  agencies  that  are  to  be  utilized 
in  the  solution  of  the  rural  life  problem.  —  Butterfield's  Country 
Church  and  Rural  Problem,  pp.  34-66,  passim. 

Show  clearly  how  no  effort  for  rural  betterment  can  hope  to 
succeed  till  we  get  an  educated  leadership  there.  —  Foght's 
American  Rural  School,  pp.  13-16;  Bailey's  Country  Life  Move- 
ment, pp.  61-62. 

How  is  agriculture  our  dominant  interest?  Relative  to  our 
total  industry,  does  agriculture  occupy  as  prominent  a  place  to-day 
as  half  a  century  ago  ?  Explain  Butterfield's  Country  Church,  pp. 
1-6 ;  Foght's  Rural  School,  pp.  8-9. 

What  is  meant  by  the  "unearned  increment"  of  land  ?    Do  you 


236  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

think  that  farming,  in  our  country  as  a  whole,  is  as  profitable  as  it 
should  be  ?  —  Carver's  Rural  Economics,  pp.  339-340. 

Show  how  the  comparative  barrenness  in  rural  social  life,  caused 
chiefly  by  the  exodus  to  the  city,  makes  it  more  and  more  difficult 
to  keep  a  population  with  right  ideals  on  the  farm.  —  Foght's 
Rural  School,  pp.  4-8;  Plunkett's  Rural  Life  Problem,  Ch.  Ill, 
passim. 

Explain  carefully  how  the  rural  schools  came  to  be  neglected. 
What  does  Mr.  Roosevelt's  Commission  mean  by  speaking  of  the 
"arrested  development"  of  the  schools?  —  Foght's  Rural  School, 
pp.  1-4;  Report  of  the  Commission  on  Country  Life,  pp.  1 21-12  2. 

The  plea  of  the  rural  life  workers  is  for  a  "new  kind  of  a  school" 
with  a  "redirected  curriculum."  Do  you  think  that  people  as  a 
whole  feel  the  need  of  such  schools?  What  do  teachers  say? 
—  Report  of  the  Commission  on  Country  Life,  p.  124. 

Read  L.  H.  Bailey's  The  New  School.  —  Outlook  to  Nature,  pp. 
1 1 7-1 24.  What,  according  to  the  writer,  does  the  new  education 
contemplate  ? 

How  are  you  able  to  meet  the  common  objection  that  the  school 
program  is  overcrowded  already?  Is  it  possible  that  ambitious 
teachers  are  even  now  robbing  the  beginners  in  school  by  giving 
time  for  high  school  subjects?  For  example:  should  algebra, 
general  history,  etc.,  be  taught  in  any  one-teacher  school?  Ex- 
plain.—  Bailey's  Outlook  to  Nature,  pp.  125-126. 

Explain :  what  is  contemplated  is  not  so  much  an  addition  of 
new  subjects  as  a  redirection  of  the  old.  —  Foght's  Rural  School, 
pp.  22,  154-155. 

Study  these  two  problems:  {a)  Smith  invests  $3500  in  U.  S. 
3's  at  104.  What  is  his  investment  ?  {h)  How  many  pounds  of 
milk,  yielding  3I  per  cent  butter  fat,  does  it  take  to  make  35 
pounds  of  butter,  the  overrun  being  14  per  cent  ?  Do  these  prob- 
lems show  clearly  the  new  trend?    Which  belongs  to  the  new? 

Teacher,  were  you  reared  in  the  country  ?  Have  you  a  genuine 
love  for  your  nature  environment  ?    Are  you  in  honest  sympathy 


THE   CURRICULUM   OF   THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      237 

with  farm  life  ?  How  do  you  set  about  increasing  this  knowledge 
of  environment  ?  Suggestion :  read  all  the  poetry  you  can  find 
dealing  with  nature  —  not  so  much  that  which  talks  about  nature 
as  that  which  breathes  nature.  Read  L.  H.  Bailey's  poems  found 
in  "The  Rural  Outlook  Set." 

Can  you  conceive  of  a  happy  and  contented  farm  life  where 
those  on  the  farm  are  out  of  harmony  with  nature  ? 

Is  it  true  that  American  rural  children  are  less  in  harmony  with 
nature  than  the  children  of  Continental  Europe?  How  do  you 
account  for  this  ?  What  is  the  remedy  ?  —  Foght^s  Rural  School ^ 
pp.  154-155;  Kern's  Among  Country  Schools,  pp.  34-36. 

Is  there  any  danger  of  training  a  generation  of  sharpers  in  the 
rural  schools  —  men  who  will  own  the  soil  chiefly  because  of  its 
money-getting  qualities  ?    Explain. 

What  in  the  economic  value  of  nature  study  appeals  to  the 
farmer?  —  Foght's  Rural  School,  pp.  156-158. 

Do  you  know  any  person,  man  or  woman,  who  is  not  a  better 
social  and  moral  being  for  having  been  brought  into  touch  with 
the  "small,  still  voice"  of  nature?  How  can  you  use  the  same 
"voice"  in  school? 

Explain :  "To  him  who  in  the  love  of  nature  holds 

Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 
A  various  language.  ..." 

Do  you  think  that  as  much  culture  may  be  gained  from  the  na- 
turaUst  studies  as  from  the  old  humanities?  Explain  yourself. 
—  Bailey's  Outlook  to  Nature,  pp.  97-104. 

Why  does  it  seem  better  to  use  the  term  nature-study  agri- 
culture in  preference  to  plain  agriculture? — Bailey's  The  Nature 
Study  Idea,  pp.  93-101. 

How  do  you  defend  the  statement  that  agriculture  in  the  rural 
schools  is  not  a  concession  to  the  farmers  ? 

Explain  how  you  teach  agriculture.  How  much  is  textbook 
work  ?  Do  you  have  a  terrarium,  window  box,  or  other  simple 
indoor  laboratory  ?    What  is  your  outdoor  laboratory  ? 


238  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Make  an  inspection  of  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Five, 
N.  E.  A.,  on  Industrial  Education  in  Schools  for  Rural  Com- 
munities. Comment  on  the  plan  of  five  years  of  nature  study- 
to  be  followed  in  years  6,  7  and  8  with  a  course  in  agriculture. 
—  Foght's  Rural  School,  pp.  161-162, 

Study  the  school  ground  as  a  factor  in  rural  life  betterment. 
Is  your  school  ground  at  least  as  attractive  as  the  average  home 
ground  in  the  community?  What  immediate  improvements  are 
desirable  ?  How  will  you  go  about  meeting  them  ?  Have  you 
birds  and  bird  houses  on  the  school  grounds?  —  Foght's  Rural 
School,  pp.  167-173 ;  Kern's  Among  Country  Schools,  Ch.  III. 

There  are  at  least  80,000  school  gardens  in  the  United  States. 
Are  you  the  master  of  one  of  these  ?  If  not,  give  honest  reasons 
why  not.  —  Foght's  Rural  School,  Ch.  X;  Kern's  Among  Country 
Schools,  Ch.  IV. 

How  may  you  overcome  the  dijfficulties  of  looking  after  the 
school  garden  during  vacation  ? 

Study  the  children's  home  garden  as  a  link  between  home  and 
school.  If  the  school  garden  is  impracticable,  this  may  take  its 
place.  Get  and  study  the  following  Farmers'  Bulletins  from  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture:  No.  154.  The  Home 
Fruit  Garden;  No.  218.  The  School  Garden;  No.  255.  The 
Home  and  Vegetable  Garden. 

The  boys'  and  girls'  growing  and  cooking  clubs  are  perhaps  the 
best  means  at  the  disposal  of  the  rural  school  for  creating  a  sym- 
pathetic relation  with  the  home.  Point  out  their  educational 
advantages  to  the  children.  —  Foght's  Rural  School,  pp.  222-223. 

How  can  the  community  share  in  the  club  work  ?  Would  you 
make  the  club-show  the  means  of  bringing  into  the  community 
extension  lecturers  ? 

Would  you  sanction  a  pet  stock  and  poultry  show  in  connection 
with  the  club-show  ? 

Are  you  able  to  compile  for  the  farm  home  a  list  of  good  books 
on  agriculture  and  club  work  ?   a  list  of  free  bulletins  from  the 


THE   CURRICULUM  OF  THE  COMMUNITY  SCHOOL      239 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  or  State  College  of  Agriculture  ? 
Let  this  be  a  test  of  your  grasp  on  agriculture  literature.  If  your 
state  has  a  free  traveHng  hbrary  system,  have  you  a  box  of  its 
books  on  agriculture  and  clubs  in  the  school  ? 

Show  wherein  manual  training  and  domestic  science  will  make 
farm  pursuits  more  skillful  and  farm  life  more  attractive.  —  Foght's 
Rural  School,  Ch.  XII ;  Kern's  Among  Country  Schools,  Ch.  XIV. 

What  handwork  would  you  suggest  as  feasible  in  any  rural 
school?  Read  of  the  informal  work  in  manual  training  and  do- 
mestic science  done  in  many  rural  schools  (see  ref .  under  preced- 
ing topic).     Can  you  do  as  much  ? 

The  rural  teacher  does  not  have  a  physician  handy  to  give  advice 
on  every  occasion  and  must  therefore  be  his  own  medical  inspector. 
Do  you  feel  this  responsibility  ?  Are  you  prepared  for  it  ? — Allen's 
Civics  and  Health,  pp.  283-292. 

Explain  the  relation  of  general  intelligence  to  physical  education. 

What  should  be  the  teacher's  place  in  the  struggle  against 
disease?  Make  a  study  of  drinking  cups,  much-handled  books, 
pencils,  etc.  How  do  you  disinfect  these  ?  —  Foght's  Rural  School, 
pp.  282-292  ;  Allen's  Civics  and  Health,  pp.  45-152,  passim. 

Send  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  270,  entitled  Modern  Conveniences  for  the  Farm 
Home.     Study  it,  then  procure  copies  for  your  patrons. 

Are  you  able  to  sit  down  in  a  farmer's  home  and  discuss  prob- 
lems of  farm  sanitation  with  such  tact  and  unquestioned  ability 
that  your  advice  will  be  heeded?  Let  this  be  a  test  of  a  good 
farm  teacher. 

Have  you  some  simple  gymnastic  apparatus  on  the  playground  ? 
If  not,  you  and  the  older  boys  should  be  able  to  erect  a  swing, 
turning  pole,  cHmbing  rope,  and  climbing  pole  outfit,  giant  stride, 
etc.     Read  Kern's  Annual  Report  of  Winnebago  County  for  igii. 

Play  is  necessary ;  but  it  should  be  supervised  play.  Can  you 
supervise  the  play  activities  in  person  without  spending  all 
your  intermission  time  on  the  playground  ? 


240  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Show  clearly  the  relation  of  wholesome  physical  exercise  to 
school  morals.  —  Foght's  Rural  School,  pp.  300-301. 

State  concisely  what  is  meant  by  "new  leaven  in  the  old  sub- 
jects in  the  rural  school  curriculum." 

What  can  you  do  to  give  a  "redirection"  to  arithmetic? 
geography?   physiology?   reading?   English? 

Were  you  trained  in  a  school  offering  special  courses  in  rural 
life  problems?  That  is,  have  you  a  good  knowledge  of  what  is 
necessary  to  give  the  much  needed  reforms  in  our  rural  com- 
munities ?  Strengthen  your  knowledge  along  these  lines  by  read- 
ing the  more  important  rural  life  books  enumerated  in  the  bibli- 
ography given  below. 

Point  out  the  value  of  rural  life  study  as  a  part  of  the  informal 
work  in  the  rural  school. 

Show  the  value  Oi  a  discussion  of  such  topics  as  these  at  the 
Friday  afternoon  exercises  or  the  evening  debating  society: 
better  means  of  communicaton ;  the  grange  and  similar  social 
organizations;  new  home  conveniences  in  the  farm  home;  and 
cooperative  buying  and  selling  organizations. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Books 

Bailey,  Liberty  H.     Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture. 

^  The  Nature  Study  Idea. 

"^  The  Outlook  to  Nature. 
The  State  and  the  Farmer. 
The  Country  Life  Movement. 
Beard,  Augustus  Field.     The  Story  of  John  Frederick  Oherlin. 
BuELL,  Jennie.    One  Woman'' s  Work  for  Farm  Women. 
BuTTERFiELD,  Kenyon  L.     Chapters  in  Rural  Progress. 
Commission  on  Country  Life,  Report  of. 
Davenport,  Eugene.    Education  for  Efficiency. 
DoDD,  Mrs.  Helen.     The  Healthful  Farmhouse. 


THE   CURRICULUM   OF   THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      24 1 

Field,  Jessie.    The  Corn  Lady. 
Farm  Arithmetic. 
^FoGHT,  Harold  W.     The  American  Rural  School. 

GiLMAN  and  Williams.     Seat  Work  and  Industrial  Occupations. 
Gulick  Hygiene  Series.     Town  and  City^ 
Hapgood.    School  Needlework. 
fjiEMENWAY,  H.  D.    How  to  Make  School  Gardens. 
[  Kern,  O.  J.    Among  Country  Schools. 

Plunkett,  Sir  Horace.     The  Rural  Life  Problem  of  the  United 

States. 
Roberts,  Isaac  Phillips.     The  Farmstead. 

The  Farmer^ s  Business  Handbook. 
Van  Hise,  Charles  R.     The  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources  in 

the  United  States. 
Ward,  Clarence  M.    Farm  Friends  and  Farin  Foes. 
Bailey,  L.  H.    On  the  Training  of  Persons  to  Teach  Agriculture  in 
the  Public  Schools.     Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 
(jCrosby,  Dick  J.     Bibliography  of  Nature  Study,  School  Gardening, 
and  Elementary  A  griculture  for  Common  Schools.     Department 
of  Agriculture,  Circular  52,  Washington,  D.C. 
Crosby,  Dick  J.    Boys^  Agricultural  Clubs.    Yearbook  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  1904.     Washington,  D.C. 
^1  Crosby,  Dick  J.    How  may  the  Rural  Schools  be  more  Closely 
^  "         Related  to  the  Life  and  Needs  of  the  People.    N.  E.  A.    Journal 
of  Proceedings  and  Addresses.     (1909.) 
(Hayes,  Willett  M.    Education  for  Country  Life.    Department 
^^       of  Agriculture ;  Circular  84,  Washington,  D.C. 
[  Jewell,  James  R.    Agricultural  Education.    Including  Nature 
'*"         Study  and  School  Gardens.      Bureau  of  Education,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.    (Revised,  1909.) 
^-    Knorr,  Geo.  W.     Consolidated  Rural  Schools  and  Organization 
of  a  County  System.     Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin 
232,  Washington,  D.C. 
National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.     Tenth  yearbook, 


242  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

191 1,  Part  II.     The  Rural  School  as  a  Community  Center. 

Univ.  of  Chicago  Press.     $0.75. 
Rural  Life  Bulletin  for  IQ12.     State  Normal  School,  Kirksville, 

Mo. 
Rural  Life  Bulletins  for  igio  and  igii.    University  of  Virginia, 

Charlottesville,  Va. 
ScuDDER,  Myron  T.     The  Field  Day  and  Play  Picnic  for  Country 

Schools.    Pub.  of  Playground  Asso.  of  America. 
Sundry    Numbered    Bulletins.    Department    of    Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. : 

No.    28,  Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them. 
No.    54,  Some  Common  Birds  in  their  Relation  to  Agriculture. 
No.    63,  Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 
No.    74,  Milk  as  a  Food. 
No.    84,  Education  for  Country  Life. 
No.    86,  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants. 
No.  112,  Bread  and  Principles  of  Bread  Making. 
No.  113,  The  Apple  and  how  to  Grow  it. 
No.  126.  Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings. 
No.  134,  Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds. 
No.  142,  Principles  of  Nutrition  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food. 
No.  149,  Corn  Growing. 
No.  157,  The  Propagation  of  Plants. 
No.  173,  The  Primer  of  Forestry. 
No.  185,  Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds. 
No.  187,  Drainage  of  Farm  Lands. 
No.  188,  Weeds  used  in  Medicine. 
No.  192,  Barnyard  Manure. 
No.  194,  Alfalfa  Seed. 
No.  21$,  Alfalfa  Growing. 
No.  218,  The  School  Garden. 
No.  228,  Forest  Planting  and  Farm  Management. 
No.  229,  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn. 
No.  248,  The  Lawn. 


THE   CURRICULUM    OF   THE    COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      243 

No.  249,  Cereal  Breakfast  Foods. 

No.  253,  Germination  of  Seed  Corn. 

No.  255,  The  Home  Vegetable  Garden. 

No.  270,  Modern  Conveniences  for  the  Farm  Home. 

No.  278,  Legumes  for  Green  Manure. 

No.  298,  Food  Value  of  Corn  and  Corn  Products. 

No.  315,  Progress  in  Legume  Inoculation. 

No.  321,  The  Use  of  the  SpUt-log  Drag  on  Earth  Roads. 

Magazine  Articles 

American  Education,  10 :  439-46,  March,  1907.  Some  Economic 
and  Social  Aspects  of  the  Rural  School  Problem. 

Atlantic  School  Journal,  beginning  Vol.  IV,  No.  6,  1909.  Some 
Problems  of  the  Rural  School  Situation. 

Education,  24 :  74-80,  October,  1903.  The  School  as  a  Factor  in 
Industrial  and  Social  Problems. 

Independent,  68:  1146-48,  May  26,  1910.     Health  in  Country  Life. 

Outlook,  91:823-825,  April  10,  1909.  Life  of  Farmer:  A  Sym- 
posium. 

Outlook,  February  5,  1910.    Southern  Boys'  Corn  Clubs. 

Survey,  22  :  640-649,  August  7,  1909.     The  Little  Red  Schoolhouse. 

Survey,  94 :  891-901,  April  23,  19 10.     Children  of  the  Land. 

Survey,  94:  841-844,  April  16,  1910.    New  Life  on  the  Farm. 

School  and  Home  Education,  28 :  90-94,  November,  1908.  Country 
Life  and  the  Country  School. 

Virginia  Journal  of  Education,  The,  Vol.  I  (1909) ,  1-6.  Community 
Service  and  the  Public  Schools. 

Western  Journal  of  Education  (Michigan),  i :  159-160,  April, 
1908.     An  Ideal  District  School. 

World's  Work,  2  :  719.     Actual  Rural  Independence. 

World's  Work,  7  :  4179.     The  New  Farmer  and  a  New  Earth. 

World's  Work,  17  :  10970.    On  the  Soil. 

World's  Work,  17  :  11417.    What  the  Country  School  must  Become. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

COMMUNITY  ACTIVITY  IN  THE   ADMINIS- 
TRATION OF  EDUCATION 

The  Rising  Movement  of  the  Consolidation  of  Rural 
Schools.  —  The  rapidly  exfoliating  civilization  of  the 
past  half  century  has  led  to  general  social  and  economic 
readjustments.  Although  the  tendency  has  been  more 
and  more  to  place  social  institutions  upon  a  basis  of 
scientific  adjustments  and  relations,  to  discover  new 
relations,  and  to  create  new  social  values  in  these  re- 
adjustments, the  rural  school  has  been  overlooked.  The 
neglect  which  it  has  suffered  was  partly  due  to  its  isola- 
tion, and  partly  to  a  statesmanship  which  had  strangely 
and  mistakenly  regarded  the  country  school  as  a  purely 
local  institution,  failing  to  see  that  the  country  school 
owes  certain  responsibilities  to  the  State,  and  that  its 
place  as  a  country-life  institution  is  not  merely  incidental, 
but  fundamental.  So  it  happened  that  at  the  beginning 
of  the  twentieth  century  the  riu^al  school  was  practically 
still  in  the  early  nineteenth  century.  Here  and  there, 
in  widely  separated  locaHties,  farmers  had  begim  to  look 
with  disfavor  upon  the  then  existing  country  schools. 
They  entertained  ideals  which  the  small  school  did  not 

entirely  fill.    Thousands  of  these  schools  were  absolutely 

244 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      245 

static,  as  other  thousands  are  at  this  moment;  other 
thousands  were  slowly  losing  ground  and  found  them- 
selves with  dwindling  attendance,  lacking  in  super- 
vision, with  small  enthusiasm,  poor  equipments,  and  with 
underpaid  and  at  times  inferior  teachers.  Long  even 
before  the  farmers  had  taken  active  steps,  progressive 
educators  had  advocated  large  educational  units  for 
country  districts.  Caleb  Mills,  the  State  School  Super- 
intendent of  Indiana,  as  early  as  1859,  advocated  the 
formation  of  large  undivided  districts  and  consoli- 
dation of  small  districts  before  understanding  legislative 
committees  and  farmers.  But  it  was  without  avail  so 
long  as  those  constituencies  were  not  receptive  to  the 
idea  of  school  consolidation.  No  form  of  school  can  be 
forced  upon  communities  unwilling  to  accept  it.  The 
idea  of  combining  several  district  schools  into  one  cen- 
trally located  one  was  first  carried  out  by  Superintendent 
F.  E.  Eaton,  of  Concord,  Mass.,  in  1869.  He  pro- 
vided conveyances  for  the  pupils  of  four  district  schools 
to  the  town  school  in  Concord.  The  undertaking, 
although  bitterly  opposed  by  some  patrons,  succeeded, 
and  the  school  wagons  have  rendered  service  continuously 
to  this  day,  and  the  splendid  "  Emerson  School  "  in  the 
city  of  Concord  stands  a  monument  to  Superintendent 
Eaton's  wisdom.  The  success  of  this  experiment  was 
the  signal  for  the  beginning  of  a  general  movement  of 
rural  school  consolidation,  or,  more  correctly,  rural  school 
redirection  in  Massachusetts  and  other  states.  The 
idea  of  abolishing  by  vote  the  district  schools  of  an  entire 


246  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

township  and  of  merging  them  into  one  central  school 
originated  later,  in  1894,  in  northeastern  Ohio.  It  was 
there  that  the  possibility  of  systems  of  consolidated 
schools,  embracing  entire  counties,  first  suggested  it- 
self. 

This  in  turn  led  to  a  new  viewpoint  of  the  county  and 
the  organization  of  the  country  community.  In  the 
light  of  broad  and  comprehensive  plans  for  the  reor- 
ganization of  our  agriculture,  the  open  country  is  coming 
to  be  regarded  not  as  a  vast  aggregation  of  individual 
farmsteads,  but  of  large  complexes  of  farms  and  farm 
homes  —  country  communities  each  with  its  own  inter- 
nal interests,  social  organization,  and  community  con- 
science. This  typical  modern  rural  community  com- 
prises between  100  and  200  farms,  and  covers  an  area 
of  15  or  20  up  to  40  square  miles.  It  may  be  a  township, 
or  arbitrary  district,  whose  area  is  determined  by  the 
distance  of  a  convenient  team  haul  to  a  strategic  local 
point  at  which  the  school  is  located,  or  it  may  be  formed 
by  merging  or  consolidating  a  group  of  small  detached 
school  districts  into  one  large  district.  Accordingly, 
these  schools  are  designated  consolidated  schools  and 
the  supporting  districts,  consolidated  school  districts. 
Centralized  school  is  a  term  currently  used  in  Ohio. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  time  the  terms  "  Farm  School  " 
or  "  Country  Life  School  "  will  find  acceptance  among 
farmers.  As  some  of  the  educable  children  in  the  con- 
solidated school  district  will  unavoidably  live  beyond 
walking  distance,  conveyances,  the  cost  of  which  is  de- 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE   COMMUNITY    SCHOOL       247 

frayed  out  of  pubKc  funds,  must  be  provided.  The 
school  wagon  routes  should  be  the  longest  possible,  con- 
sistent with  prompt,  regular,  and  safe  service.  They 
would  tend  to  be  shorter  on  poor  roads  and  in  hilly 
and  broken  country,  longer  on  good  roads  and  in  level 
and  prairie  country. 

The  Consolidated  School  as  a  Country  Life  Institu- 
tion. —  The  consoKdated  school  buildings  in  many 
places,  being  centrally  located  and  convenient  of  access, 
serve  splendidly  for  purposes  of  community  halls, 
and  have  become  important  and  useful  factors  in  build- 
ing up  coimtry  life.  They  are  common  meeting  ground 
upon  which  members  of  a  community  of  considerable 
size  can  meet,  regardless  of  rehgious,  political,  or  social 
complexions.  Our  rural  population,  as  a  defensive 
measure,  to  save  itself  from  becoming  merely  a  laboring 
class  for  the  nonresident  landowner  or  of  an  incorpo- 
rated agriculture,  must  become  an  efficient,  many  armed 
cooperation.  And  it  is  a  legitimate  activity  of  the  con- 
solidated school  to  train  deeply  and  thoroughly  our 
country  youth  in  team  work  and  cooperative  work  of 
every  form. 

Descriptions  and  Definitions.  —  That  "  consolidated 
school  "  may  stand  for  the  same  thing  everywhere,  and 
not  for  one  thing  in  one  place  and  for  something  else  in 
another  place ;  it  is  necessary  to  lay  down  some  defini- 
tions. The  consolidated  school  fits  admirably  into  the 
scheme  of  American  country  life,  and  contains  within 
it  all  the  elements  of  a  comprehensive  and  permanent 


248  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

national  system  of  education  and  should  therefore  repre- 
sent a  definite  force,  never  "  standardized  "  let  us  hope, 
but  always  recognizable  by  certain  features  of  admin- 
istration, function,  and  purpose.  Another  reason  why 
a  uniform  nomenclature  is  desirable  is  that  consider- 
able state  legislation  is  certain  to  grow  up  around  this 
new  country  life  institution  as  regards  state  aid,  taxation, 
vocational  studies,  such  as  agriculture  and  home  eco- 
nomics, administration,  and  district  formation.  The 
distinctive  feature  which  all  consolidated  schools  have 
in  common  is  enlarged  unit  of  area  of  the  community 
supporting  it,  —  the  consolidated  school  district.  As  to 
certain  details  of  organization  and  administration  and 
content,  consoHdated  schools  differ  just  as  their  respec- 
tive districts  differ  in  wealth,  in  individuaHty,  in  view- 
point, in  topography,  in  density  of  population,  homes, 
etc.  Some  county  superintendents  have  found  it  possible 
in  various  localities  to  combine  one,  two,  or  three  small 
schools  by  inducing  some  of  the  pupils  to  walk  sHghtly 
greater,  but  not  unreasonable,  distances.  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  they  remain  the  same  one-room, 
one-teacher  school  they  were  before,  they  are  frequently 
referred  to  as  "  consolidated  schools  "  —  an  unfortu- 
nate misapplication  of  the  word.  Such  confusion  should 
be  avoided.  The  writer,  therefore,  proposes  the  univer- 
sal use  of  the  terms  according  to  the  following  definitions 
which  recognize,  strictly  speaking,  only  two  types  of 
consoHdated  schools.  Clearness  of  discussion  will  be 
greatly  faciHtated  thereby  and  statistics  of  consolidated 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF  THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      249 

schools  from  the  different  states  and  from  counties  within 
the  same  state  will  become  comparable.^ 

The  Tjrpical  Consolidated  School  or  Farm  School. — 
Four  or  five  rooms  and  teachers ;  a  seven  or  eight  year 
elementary  course  with  a  two,  three,  or  four  years'  high 
school  course.  The  school  must  have  at  least  two  school 
wagons  for  carrying  pupils  living  remotely. 

The  Consolidated  Graded  School.  —  Two,  three,  or 
four  rooms,  a  regular  seven  or  eight  year  primary  or  ele- 
mentary course  but  no  high  school,  and  has  at  least  one 
wagon  for  conveying  pupils. 

Union  Schools.  —  A  one-room  school  into  which  one 
or  more  small  one-room  schools  near  by  have  been 
merged ;  it  may  or  may  not  employ  a  school  wagon  for 
conveyance. 

Complete  Consolidation.  —  Refers  to  a  condition 
where  all  district  schools  or  a  township  or  other  large 
imit  or  community  are  consolidated  into  one  central 
school,  partial  consolidation  where  only  a  few  of  the 
schools  of  a  township  or  district  are  consolidated,  part 
remaining  out  as  district  schools. 

Conveyance  of  Rural  Children  to  School  at  Public  Ex- 
pense.—  Gathering  together  the  children  of  a  township  or 
consolidated  school  district  at  a  central  school  creates  an 

*  The  writer  has  in  earlier  publications  suggested  the  use  of  a  uni- 
form nomenclature. 

"  Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools  and  Organization  of  a  County  Sys- 
tem," Bui.  232  O.  E.  S.,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1910, 
"A  Study  of  Fifteen  Consolidated  Rural  Schools,  Their  Organization. 
Cost,  EflSciency,  and  Affiliated  Interest,"  Washington,  D.C.,  191 1. 


250  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

entirely  new  environment  for  them,  and  places  them  in 
a  larger  field  of  activity  than  they  knew  in  the  district 
school ;  they  become  aware  that  they  are  in  attendance 
at  an  institution  which  has  prestige,  power,  and  dignity. 
This  largely  accounts  for  the  splendid  school  spirit  one 
finds  prevalent  in  so  many  consolidated  schools.  The 
circle  of  acquaintance  of  each  child  is  enlarged  nearly 
twelvefold,  and  from  the  time  he  enters  school  he  moves 
within  a  larger  radius  of  action.  The  pupil  in  this 
school  knows  more  of  the  local  geography,  knows  more 
about  the  farms,  crops,  live  stock  and  buildings,  is  more 
fully  in  touch  with  the  life  and  meaning  of  the  com- 
munity, makes  more  friends  and  has  more  rivals  than 
the  pupils  in  the  small  school.  He  has  no  opportunity 
to  get  to  school  too  early,  nor  any  possible  excuse  for 
being  tardy.  Many  of  the  difficulties  which  are  apt 
to  arise  where  pupils  walk  to  school  are  entirely  over- 
come, such  as  swearing,  obscene  language,  loitering,  and 
the  use  of  tobacco. 

The  organization  of  the  school  wagon  service  differs 
with  various  schools.  Thus  the  wagons  may  be  owned 
publicly  by  the  school,  or  the  school  board  or  county, 
or  they  may  be  owned  privately,  by  the  drivers.  The 
drivers  as  a  rule  are  carefully  selected,  sober,  responsible 
persons.  Upon  their  good  sense  and  tact  depends  much 
of  the  success  of  the  school.  There  is  not  an  American 
community  where  such  persons  may  not  be  found.  The 
person  assuming  the  contract  to  transport  the  children 
should  be  required  to  give  bond  for  faithful  performance 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE   COMMUNITY    SCHOOL      251 

of  duties,  and  should  be  required  to  do  the  driving  per- 
sonally. Substituting  farm  help,  or  big  boys  in  school 
to  do  the  driving  is  liable  to  work  out  unsatisfactorily. 
Substitution  should  not  be  allowed  without  permission 
from  the  president  of  the  board.  The  service  is  paid 
by  the  month,  or  by  the  day,  or  by  the  number  of  chil- 
dren hauled.  The  latter  plan  usually  works  well  in 
states  without  compulsory  attendance  laws,  or  where 
their  enforcement  is  lax.  The  driver  usually  manages 
to  haul  a  full  attendance.  Improved  roads  are  a  very 
helpful  factor  in  running  school  wagons  regularly  and  on 
schedule  time,  and  every  wagon  route  should  have  a 
carefully  prepared  schedule  to  which  the  drivers  must 
hold,  reporting  to  the  principal  upon  the  arrival  at  the 
school.  Some  of  the  best  consolidated  schools  in  the 
country  are  located  in  sections  where  the  roads  are  prac- 
tically all  dirt  roads.  Where  roads  are  very  bad  and 
the  climate  severe  there  is  all  the  better  reason  for  pro- 
viding conveyance  for  the  children.  Where  children 
walk,  colds  and  sickness  from  exposure,  drenched  clothes, 
and  wet  feet  are  considerably  more  prevalent  than  the 
imobservant  realize,  and  are  often  responsible  for  the 
low  attendance  at  school.  Some  consolidated  schools 
convey  the  pupils  of  the  elementary  classes  or  grades  only, 
requiring  the  high  school  pupils  to  provide  their  own 
transportation;  but  the  schools  offering  the  privilege 
of  free  conveyance  to  all  pupils  have  generally  the  best 
and  most  regular  attendance. 

School  wagons  may  be  purchased  of  manufacturers 


252  EDUCATIONAL   RESOURCES 

at  from  $200  to  $250;  but  serviceable  vehicles  can  be 
constructed  by  local  shops  at  a  lower  figure.  Use  of 
vehicles  without  springs  should  not  be  allowed,  and 
frequent  inspection  should  be  made  for  safety  and 
general  state  of  repair. 

Conveyance  of  rural  pupils  at  public  expense  is  recog- 
nized by  the  school  laws  of  practically  all  states.  But 
where  not  specially  provided  for,  the  courts  generally 
are  inclined  to  construe  very  broadly  the  duties  of  boards 
under  the  "  best  interests  of  the  school  "  clause.  Higher 
courts  have  recognized  in  practically  every  instance  of 
appeal  the  right  of  school  boards  to  provide  conveyance 
paid  from  public  funds.  Objectors  consider  the  cost 
of  the  conveyance  system  as  the  most  serious  fault  of 
consolidation.  The  cost  of  conveyance  per  pupil  per 
year  varies  with  local  conditions,  ranging  approximately 
between  $12  and  $23  and  averaging  about  $18.  The 
total  expenditure  made  for  conveyance  per  school  may 
amount  to  from  one  fifth  to  one  half  of  the  total 
annual  current  expenditure.  Is  such  expenditure  jus- 
tified? Two  other  questions  will  answer  it.  Is  there 
any  way  in  which  the  excellent  results  of  the  consoH- 
dated  school  can  be  obtained  without  transportation? 
How  can  there  be  consistent  objection  on  the  score  of 
expense,  when  all  the  money  paid  for  conveyance  re- 
mains in  the  township  or  district  ?  Does  not  the  money, 
public  or  private,  paid  out  for  railroad  fares  and  board, 
and  high  school  tuition  in  distant  towns  and  cities  leave 
the  township  and  district  ?     Is  a  school  district  which  is 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF    THE    COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      253 

bent  upon  economizing  its  expenditures  to  keep  down 
the  tax  rate  justified  in  economy  plans  which  cheapen 
its  schools  ?  Is  it  right  to  begin  economy  on  the  educa- 
tion of  the  boys  and  girls  ? 

In  the  course  of  a  school  survey  in  Trumbull  county, 
Ohio,  statistics  were  gathered  in  a  number  of  townships 
having  only  district  schools,  and  in  an  equal  number  of 
townships  having  only  consolidated  schools.  On  the 
basis  of  certain  of  these  statistics  collected  with  special 
reference  as  to  cost  of  schooling  pupils  in  consolidated 
and  district  schools,  it  was  found : 

That  large  numbers  of  district  schools  expend  consid- 
erably more  on  schooling  per  pupil,  per  day,  than  the 
best  consolidated  schools  having  high  schools. 

That  a  certain  class  of  district  schools  answering  to 
specific  quahfications,  and  receiving  state  aid  expended 
21.3  cents  per  pupil  per  day,  while  typical  consolidated 
schools  expended  22.5  cents  per  pupil  per  day. 

That  in  the  former,  pupils  walked  and  had  no  high 
school,  while  in  the  latter  pupils  enjoyed  local  high  school 
advantages  and  had  public  conveyance. 

That  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  one  consolidated  school 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  total  of  the  district  schools 
composing  it. 

That  the  increased  cost  is  indirectly  ascribable  to 
conveyance,  because  it  increases  the  attendance. 

That  increased  attendance,  better  school  equipment, 
supervision  by  a  principal,  better  teachers,  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  high  school  accessible  to  every  child  in  the 


254  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

community,  are  in  effect  economies,  and  as  these  can  be 
obtained  in  no  other  way  than  through  consohdation,  the 
small  increased  expenditure  is  in  reality  an  investment. 

That  section  of  the  country  where  farm  land  is  worth 
upward  of  $40  per  acre  may  safely  and  advantageously 
enter  upon  consolidation ;  or  stating  it  in  another  way, 
any  rural  community  having  a  tax  valuation  of  from 
$500,000  up  may  undertake  to  estabhsh  typical  con- 
solidated schools. 

In  no  way  can  states  invest  money  for  education 
in  the  open  country  more  effectively  than  by  offering 
liberal  aid  to  consolidated  schools  answering  to  certain 
qualifications.  A  sum  of  $1500  per  school  per  year  for 
a  period  of  five  years,  and  its  expenditure  confined 
strictly  to  the  teaching  of  agriculture  and  home  economics 
in  the  upper  elementary  and  the  high  school  grades 
would  so  greatly  improve  the  internal  conditions  of  even 
the  less  prosperous  communities  that  at  the  expiration 
of  the  aid  period,  outside  assistance  would  scarcely  be 
needed.  The  number  of  communities  avaiHng  them- 
selves of  this  aid  would  at  no  time  be  large  and  so  the 
amount  expended  by  the  state  for  this  purpose  would 
not  be  large  in  the  aggregate  nor  would  the  appropria- 
tion be  a  permanent  one.  Is  the  greater  initial  cost 
of  consolidated  schools  a  really  serious  objection  to  the 
general  adoption  of  the  system?  In  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  hundred  or  more  of  small  one-room  school  build- 
ings in  the  county  are  constantly  depreciating  and  are 
constant  objects  of  expense  for  repairs,  are  not  fifteen 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      255 

or  twenty  substantial  consolidated  schoolhouses  a  better 
permanent  investment  ? 

The  amount  of  funds  raised  by  taxation  by  consoli- 
dated school  districts  for  the  support  of  their  schools  is, 
generally  speaking,  larger  than  that  raised  by  the  one- 
room  districts.  Owing  to  this  larger  contribution  the 
consolidated  school  naturally  commands  a  stronger  local 
interest,  there  grows  up  greater  local  pride  and  a  sense 
of  ownership,  and  especially  is  this  true  in  the  open 
country  where,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  school  building 
is  the  most  conspicuous  landmark  for  miles  around. 
Once  the  building  is  paid  for,  the  cost  of  maintenance 
will  scarcely  exceed  that  of  the  combined  original  dis- 
trict schools.  It  may  be  well  at  this  place  to  caution 
communities  and  townships  against  the  mistake  of 
erecting  too  ornate  and  expensive  structures.  Of  course 
the  natural  wealth  and  resources  of  the  community  must 
determine  how  much  should  be  so  invested,  but  few 
country  communities  really  have  need  for  buildings 
costing  as  high  as  forty  thousand  dollars.  A  very  serv- 
iceable five-room  brick  building  accommodating  200 
pupils  can  be  built  for  from  twelve  to  fifteen  thousand 
dollars,  and  in  sections  where  lumber  is  abundant,  three 
or  five  thousand  dollars  will  erect  a  building  which  will 
do  splendid  service.  In  no  building  plan  should  the 
communal  social  needs  be  ignored ;  ample  hall  provisions 
should  be  made  to  encourage  and  develop  them. 

Although  in  the  consolidated  schools  in  Trumbull 
coimty,  Ohio,  compulsory  attendance  is  very  rigidly 


256  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

enforced,  pupils  in  district  schools  in  those  communities 
drop  out  upon  reaching  the  limit  of  age  of  school  attend- 
ance, but  continue  much  longer  in  consolidated  schools. 
And  this  dropping  out  process  is  so  marked  that,  taking 
the  township  as  a  whole,  the  consoHdated  school  enrolls 
26.5  per  cent  more  of  the  children  of  school  age  than  the 
district  school.  In  the  consolidated  school  a  larger  per 
cent  of  the  total  elementary  enrollment  was  in  daily- 
attendance  ;  to  be  exact  there  was  an  increase  of  15.4  per 
cent.  There  was  an  increase  of  127.3  P^^  ^^^^  in  the 
high  school  attendance.^ 

These  findings  are  of  immense  importance  as  suggesting 
the  far-reaching  changes  a  state  can  effect  by  means  of 
a  fully  organized  consolidated  rural  school  system. 
They  point  the  way  in  which  the  rural  population  of  a 
state  can  in  a  few  years  attain  a  high  average  educational 
preparation;  such  a  state  might  conceivably  gain  a 
decided  leadership  over  other  states  not  only  in  agri- 
cultural production,  but  industrially  and  even  politically. 

The  School  District  in  the  Village  and  the  Open 
Country.  —  Those  who  know  how  school  districts  are 
usually  formed  are  well  aware  that  seldom  do  far-seeing 
purpose  or  logic  enter  into  the  operation.  Expediency 
is  almost  the  rule.  The  small  individualistic  school  dis- 
trict is  the  result  and  concomitant  of  the  individualistic 
farmer.     But  the  isolation  of  the  farm  is  rapidly  being 

1  See  Bui.  232  O.  E.  S.,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
These  figures  do  not  represent  merely  local  conditions,  but  reflect  fairly 
conditions  in  rural  schools  generally. 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE   COMMUNITY    SCHOOL      257 

broken  down  and  individualism  is  making  way  for  the 
entrance  of  individualism  with  cooperation,  and  the 
growth  of  the  consolidation  sentiment  is  evidence  that 
the  rural  school  system  is  in  a  fair  way  of  being  built 
up  along  that  line.  The  rural  school  is  a  rural  need, 
and  the  school  district  should  be  organized  to  conform 
to  that  need. 

During  an  educational  history  of  130  years  the  dis- 
trict school  has  not  succeeded  in  educating  a  vocationally 
efficient  class  of  farmers,  and  the  country  over  we  are 
still  confronted  with  that  problem.  In  the  past  forty 
years  there  has  been  an  increase  of  one  half  bushel  per 
acre  in  the  corn  yield,  while  the  yield  of  wheat  has  fallen 
off  two  bushels.  The  use  of  artificial  fertilizers  is  on  the 
increase  and  the  area  of  soil  depletion  is  steadily  en- 
larging and  moving  westward.  The  per  acre  yields  of 
other  farm  crops  are  making  no  appreciable  gains.  The 
Httle  rural  school  has  also  witnessed  the  decadence  of 
rural  social  life  and  the  exodus  to  the  city.  While  not 
directly  responsible  for  the  conditions  mentioned,  it 
has  done  practically  nothing  to  correct  them  in  even 
slight  degree.  Perhaps  the  chief  reason  why  the  district 
school  is  losing  its  influence  in  rural  affairs  is  its  increasing 
maladjustment  with  rural  life.  It  performs  its  duties 
perfunctorily  and  it  is  neither  a  vital  nor  a  dynamic 
factor  in  the  rural  community.  Because  of  a  large 
amount  of  duplication  of  equipment  in  the  more  or  less 
than  100  rural  schools  in  the  county,  the  supporting 
district  is  in  most  cases  too  small  and  too  inflexible  a  imit 


258  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

to  be  successfully  administered  either  financially  or 
educationally.  There  is  constant  competition  among 
districts  for  territory.  In  portions  of  the  county  where 
the  school  population  is  on  the  increase  there  is  a  pressure 
for  the  creation  of  more  districts  by  partition;  where 
school  population  is  on  the  decrease,  there  is  generally 
a  decided  disinclination  to  discontinue  schools  with 
small  attendance,  and  schools  have  been  known  to  re- 
open year  after  year  with  half  a  dozen  and  even  fewer 
pupils.  Within  the  same  county  one  may  find  districts 
with  large  tax  valuation  and  ample  funds,  adjacent  to 
districts  with  low  tax  valuation,  and  correspondingly 
low  income  for  school  purposes.  Tardiness  and  irregular 
attendance  are  characteristic  of  rural  district  schools 
everywhere.  School  patrons  and  parents  are  not  gen- 
erally fully  cognizant  of  conditions  as  regards  their  school. 
The  optimism  that  their  own  local  school  is  the  one 
favorable  exception  in  almost  every  respect  is  quite  as 
general  as  it  is  sincere.  In  the  very  locality  in  the  mid- 
dle west,  for  instance,  where  the  writer  was  informed  with 
the  greatest  assurance  that  "  the  farmers  in  this  county 
are  all  prosperous,  there  is  not  a  home  that  does  not 
furnish  the  children  with  all  the  horses  and  vehicles 
needed  to  attend  school  daily;  attendance  in  all  our 
schools  is  good,  we  don't  need  consolidation,"  there  was 
found  on  examination  of  the  records  that  in  some  of  the 
schools  the  average  attendance  for  the  year  was  as  low  as 
30  per  cent  of  the  enrollment  and  the  yearly  average  of 
attendance  for  the  entire  county  was  only  61.4  per  cent. 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE    COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      259 

In  other  words,  there  is  no  substitute  for  public  convey- 
ance of  school  children  which  the  district  school  can 
employ  to  increase  its  attendance  permanently. 

The  One-room  School  as  the  Administrative  Unit.  — 
The  condition  of  independence  and  detachment  of  these 
unrelated  units  makes  any  kind  of  cooperation  with 
similar  and  adjacent  units  difficult,  and  especially  stands 
in  the  way  of  consoKdation.  Its  failure  to  provide 
a  local  high  school  for  the  rural  youth,  its  insuffi- 
ciency as  a  base  of  taxation  to  raise  funds  for  de- 
fra3dng  the  cost  of  such  educational  advantages  as 
ambitious  and  intelHgent  farming  communities  nowa- 
days seek  to  provide  for  their  young  men  and  women,  is 
to-day  felt  as  its  most  serious  defect.  The  same  criticism 
applies  to  some  of  the  schools  in  smaller  rural  villages. 
Another  factor  which  frequently  adds  to  the  difficulty 
of  solution  of  both  the  village  and  rural  school  problems 
is  the  creation  of  "  special  "  or  "  independent  "  school 
districts.  Whereas  consolidation  of  the  districts  of  a 
larger  rural  community  with  that  of  the  rural  village 
would  provide  sufficient  revenues  for  the  erection  and 
maintenance  of  a  large,  strong,  vigorous  graded  school 
with  a  local  high  school,  the  independent  village  district 
actually  limits  itself  and  keeps  its  own  school  from  grow- 
ing out  into  a  strong,  efficient  institution,  capable  of  carry- 
ing out  a  progressive  educational  program.  Where  the 
village  happens  to  be  the  logical  center  of  consolidation 
the  "  special  district  "  is  a  hindrance  to  bringing  the 
outlying  rural  district  into  consolidation  with  the  village 


26o  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

district.  "  Special  village  school  districts "  may  be 
hurtful  to  near-by  district  schools  in  still  another  way, 
in  that  they  draw  pupils  from  them,  many  farmers  pre- 
ferring to  pay  tuition  and  to  send  their  children  to  the 
graded  or  semigraded  village  school  rather  than  to 
their  own  one-room  school  which  they  may  consider 
unsatisfactory.  This  perhaps  in  a  large  measure  ac- 
counts for  the  fact  that  in  sections  with  static  population 
one  may  find  more  of  abandoned  district  schools  near 
towns  than  out  in  the  open  country.  The  village  does 
not  care  to  tax  itself  for  the  benefit  of  the  country  dis- 
tricts which  may  have  a  low  valuation  of  taxable  prop- 
erty and  contribute  a  proportionately  smaller  amount 
while  sending  to  school  more  children.  Often  an  in- 
tolerant local  spirit  is  responsible  for  the  separation  of 
the  interests  of  village  and  country.  Conditions  such 
as  these  check  perforce  development  of  schools  and  of 
other  local  institutions  which  tend  to  promote  the  social, 
intellectual,  and  economic  interests  of  both  country  and 
village.  The  consoHdated  school  tends  to  unite  and 
strengthen  those  interests. 

Would  not  the  consoKdated  school  also  stop  with 
one  stroke  many  of  the  neighborhood  differences  and 
quarrels  which  often  are  so  detrimental  to  the  success 
of  the  small  country  school  and  which  negative  the  best 
efforts  of  the  teacher?  Is  it  not  humiliating  to  some 
communities  that  the  domination  of  the  "  influential 
citizen  "  should  often  amount  almost  to  proprietorship  ? 
Why  should  the  district  school,  often  the  only  public 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      26 1 

institution  in  the  township,  be  named  after  the  fanner 
upon  whose  lot  the  building  happens  to  be  located  and 
the  school  referred  to  as  "  Mr.  Layson's  school,"  "  Old 
man  Grubber's  school,"  etc.?  The  district  school  is 
heir  to  these  weakening  influences  by  nature  of  its  or- 
ganization. It  is  so  narrowly  localized  that  it  represents 
only  a  fraction  of  the  community  and  it  is  too  sensi- 
tively responsive  to  whatever  goes  on  within  its  small 
sphere.  Ultimately  about  250,000  small  rural  schools 
in  the  open  country  will  yield  to  the  pressure  of  new 
social  and  economic  conditions  and  go  into  consoHdation 
in  groups  of  six  to  ten,  forming  about  25,000  country 
life  institutions  known  as  consolidated  schools  or  country 
life  schools.  The  remaining  80,000  district  schools  will 
continue  as  such  in  all  places  where  topographical  and 
geographical  conditions  will  not  permit  consolidation 
and  conveyance  of  pupils,  but  they  will  be  vitalized  and 
benefited  by  the  spirit  of  the  consolidated  schools  from 
which  will  come  the  majority  of  their  teachers. 

The  Consolidated  School  as  the  Administrative 
School  Unit.  —  In  most  cases  where  a  merger  of  one- 
room  districts  is  effected,  the  tendency  is  to  regard  con- 
solidation as  a  matter  concerning  only  the  ones  parti- 
cipating. Relations  to  other  school  units  in  the  county 
are  liable  to  be  disregarded  and  consolidation  may  pro- 
ceed planlessly.  Matters  of  taxation,  roads,  topography, 
distribution  of  population,  and  soil  conditions  enter  into 
the  problem  and  need  to  be  carefully  considered. 

It  is  significant  that  the  greatest  and  most  substantial 


262  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

progress  in  school  consolidation  has  been  made  in  states 
in  which  the  township  or  county  is  the  administrative 
school  unit ;  the  least  progress  in  those  states  in  which 
the  small  district  is  the  administrative  school  unit. 
Where  the  township  is  the  unit  its  boundary  is  con- 
terminous with  that  of  the  consolidated  school  district. 
Occasionally  it  happens  that  topographical  conditions 
will  hinder  complete  consolidation  of  all  the  schools 
in  a  township,  necessitating  for  a  time  a  continuance  of 
the  one  or  two  district  schools.  Under  a  county  system 
such  districts  can  conveniently  be  attached  to  a  consoH- 
dated  school  in  an  adjoining  township  or  even  county. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  wherever  consolidated  schools 
have  displaced  the  small  district  schools,  the  loss  of  the 
latter  has  in  no  case  been  felt.  With  the  exception 
of  three  or  four  consolidated  schools,  where  bad  planning 
or  inefficient  management  was  palpably  evident,  no  com- 
munity has  ever  returned  to  the  old  system.  Consoli- 
dated schools  are  now  in  operation  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  in  every  state  of  the  Union,  including  the  Canal 
Zone.  The  2000  t3^ical  and  consolidated  graded  schools 
in  successful  operation  may  be  regarded  as  so  many 
successful  experiments  by  rural  communities,  from  which 
others  may  benefit  if  they  desire.  The  American  farmer 
has  every  reason  to  be  proud  of  creating  a  new  dis- 
tinctively American  institution. 

The  County  System  Most  Effective  in  the  Administra- 
tion of  the  Country  School.  —  The  consolidated  school 
is  an  important  factor  in  the  solution  of  what,  for  want 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      263 

of  a  better  designation,  is  called  the  "  country  life  prob- 
lem.'^  Until  about  three  decades  ago  there  seemed  to 
have  been  no  country  life  problem ;  conditions  as  they 
arose  were  met  by  some  makeshift  poHcy  here,  some  piece- 
meal legislation  there.  Our  school  laws  even  are  the 
results  of  very  many  efforts,  by  many  persons,  and  can 
scarcely  be  characterized  as  the  crystallization  of  a  clear- 
cut  philosophy  conscious  of  a  definite  aim  and  purpose. 
Through  the  consoUdated  school,  has  the  idea  of  the 
community  as  the  basis  of  country  Hfe  organization  and 
as  the  vehicle  of  all  country  Hfe  activities,  risen  to  the 
dignity  of  a  well-defined  philosophy,  and  assumed  an 
importance  never  before  realized.  The  substantial 
building  of  four,  five,  or  more  rooms,  its  permanence, 
its  local  influence,  the  considerable  territory  and  number 
of  families  it  serves,  are  all  factors  which  suggest  the 
necessity  of  most  systematic  planning  of  well-balanced 
districts;  not  each  separately,  but  each  with  regard  to 
all  other  districts  in  the  county.  To  locate  several  or 
even  only  one  consolidated  school  at  an  illogical  point, 
or  to  plan  a  number  of  districts  much  too  small  in  size, 
would  inevitably  lead  to  encroachment  of  territory, 
to  duplication  of  school  work,  possibly  to  friction  be- 
tween districts  because  of  administrative  difficulties. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  starting  from  the  largest  possible 
administrative  base,  of  disregarding  present  civic  di- 
visions and  redistricting  the  territory  in  question  with 
an  eye  wholly  to  educational  needs.  The  conviction 
is  quite  generally  growing  that  the  county  is  the  most 


264  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

suitable  unit  for  purposes  of  school  administration,  re- 
gardless of  whether  the  ultimate  unit  be  the  one-room 
school  district  or  the  township,  or  the  consolidated  school 
district.  Under  the  county  unit  plan  school  affairs  are 
usually  administered  by  a  county  board  of  which  the 
superintendent  of  schools  is  the  executive  officer.  As 
there  is  in  the  county  a  larger  population  from  which 
to  select  this  important  body,  better  forces  and  greater 
ability  can  be  brought  together,  than  in  the  district  with 
only  a  score  or  more  of  families.  The  intensively  indi- 
vidualistic administration  of  the  small  district  gives 
place  to  a  cooperation  of  the  most  capable,  intelKgent, 
and  interested  leaders.  Busy  persons  who  would  not  for 
a  moment  consider  the  offer  of  a  trusteeship  in  a  district 
school,  consider  it  an  honor  to  be  selected  to  the  member- 
ship of  a  county  school  board  or  the  board  of  a  consoli- 
dated school.  The  system  in  vogue  in  Indiana  is  at- 
tended by  excellent  results.  Briefly,  it  is  as  follows : 
township  trustees  are  elected  for  four  years;  besides 
other  duties  these  officials  have  charge  of  the  roads 
and  of  the  rural  schools ;  all  the  township  trustees  in  the 
county  constitute  the  county  school  board  which  elects 
the  superintendent  of  schools  who  holds  office  during 
four  years.  He  is  usually  reelected  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  board.  PoHtics  play  a  very  minor  part  in  the 
selection  of  the  superintendent.  Trustees  as  well  as 
county  superintendents  are  almost  without  exception 
men  of  ability  and  worth. 

Under  the  county  system  an  equitable  distribution 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF    THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      265 

of  school  funds  is  effected,  a  county  board  is  always  re- 
sponsive to  local  demands,  and  is  in  position  to  take  the 
initiative  in  any  general  movement  for  school  better- 
ment ;  isolated  schools  are  less  likely  to  suffer  neglect, 
and  cooperation  among  schools  is  made  easy. 

The  consolidated  school  increases  the  importance 
of  the  county  superintendent.  It  makes  larger  demands 
on  him  in  the  way  of  executive  ability,  resourcefulness, 
leadership  and  professional  preparation.  The  politician 
superintendent,  who  is  such  a  dead  weight  on  the  rural 
schools,  is  sure  to  be  eliminated.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  placed  at  the  superintendent's  command  means 
which  enable  him  to  emphasize  his  leadership.  In  place 
of  visiting  loo  or  150  separate  small  schools  scattered 
over  the  county,  he  concentrates  his  time  and  attention  on 
the  fifteen,  twenty,  or  as  the  case  may  be,  thirty  consoli- 
dated schools ;  time  which  was  spent  in  traversing  coun- 
try roads  is  used  in  supervision  of  the  teachers'  work,  for 
he  now  has  days  to  devote  to  work  in  each  school,  whereas 
before  he  had  hours  only ;  his  work  where  consolidation 
is  to  be  carried  into  effect  is  largely  constructive.  The 
short  terms  of  office  customary  in  many  states  need  to  be 
lengthened  to  terms  of  satisfactory  service  in  order  to 
enable  the  county  to  fully  utilize  the  ability  of  super- 
intendents with  exceptional  executive  and  constructive 
talent.  A  board,  responsible  to  the  public,  usually 
secures  a  more  capable  class  of  county  superintendents 
than  does  an  election.  Is  it  good  business  policy  to  take 
them  out  of  this  work  every  two  or  four  years  ?    Does  one 


266  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

change  architects  several  times  in  the  course  of  construc- 
tion of  an  important  public  building  ?  Is  the  importance 
of  the  person  who  has  charge  of  the  schooling  of  3000  or 
4000  country  children  in  the  county  not  commonly 
underrated  ? 

The  matter  of  locating  the  school  building  is  at  times 
attended  with  difficulties  because  of  the  diversity  of  local 
and  personal  interests  involved.  The  correct  judgment  in 
most  cases  lies  in  locating  it  in  the  geographic  center  of 
the  district.  Villages  or  rural  towns  will  often  be  found 
convenient  centers.  Where  division  of  opinion  is  too 
divergent,  it  may  be  wise  to  consult  an  outsider  experi- 
enced in  such  work ;  his  counsel  may  be  more  acceptable 
than  that  of  a  resident.  By  redistricting  the  entire 
county  at  one  time,  a  more  logical  and  better  balanced 
plan  is  usually  arrived  at  than  by  cutting  off  district 
after  district.  Each  district  may  then  consolidate  its 
school  at  any  time  it  may  choose.  If  any  prefer  to 
remain  unconsoHdated,  they  may  do  so  without  impair- 
ing the  general  plan.  The  superintendent  of  schools  of 
every  county  where  consohdation  is  practicable,  should 
have  at  least  a  tentative  plan  of  consohdation  of  schools 
mapped  out  so  that  even  if  the  execution  of  the  plan  in 
its  entirety  be  not  immediately  in  prospect,  the  centers 
of  possible  consolidation  may  be  accorded  sympathetic 
recognition.  By  degrees  these  can  be  allowed  to  absorb 
near-by  schools  as  they  weaken. 

A  Vitalized  Country  Community.  —  The  consohdated 
school  is  adapted  as  no  other  form  of  school,  for  carrying 


THE   ADMINISTRATION    OF    THE   COMMIINITY   SCHOOL      267 

to  the  bulk  of  the  six  millions  of  boys  and  girls  growing  up 
on  the  farms  of  this  country  the  large  body  of  knowledge 
relating  to  agriculture  and  home  economics,  made  avail- 
able by  the  scientists  in  experiment  stations  of  this  and 
other  countries.  The  consolidated  and  village  rural 
schools  provide  almost  ideal  conditions  under  which 
farm  management  can  be  taught  in  a  vital  way  to  very 
large  numbers  of  pupils  —  fully  twice  the  number  that 
can  be  reached  in  district  schools.  These  schools,  being 
close  to  the  soil  and  native,  can  vitaHze  class  work  re- 
lating to  field  crops,  farm  accounts,  stock  feeding,  and  so 
on,  and  can  supplement  in  a  most  effective  way  the  home 
apprenticeship  of  the  boy  and  girl  on  the  farm.  The 
largest  part,  perhaps  75  per  cent,  of  rural  education 
rests  on  the  rural  schools  —  they  will  always  have  to 
take  care  of  that  much ;  high  schools  and  colleges  will 
take  care  of  the  remaining  part.  The  system  of  one- 
room  schools,  becoming  obsolete,  is  so  organized  that 
it  not  only  fails  to  reach  down  and  through  real  life, 
so  as  to  bring  vocational  instruction  and  vocational 
guidance  to  the  93  per  cent  who  do  not  go  farther  than 
the  elementary  school,  but  that  it  also  fails  to  articulate 
with  schools  which  do  supply  these  important  educa- 
tional elements.  The  consolidated  school  not  only 
overcomes  the  defect  of  lack  of  articulation,  but  voca- 
tional agricultural  and  home  economics  instruction  is 
being  introduced  with  gratifying  success  and  with  every 
prospect  that  those  93  per  cent  in  need  of  it  can  be  and 
will  be  reached ;  and  that  every  important  fact  and  every 


268  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

new  discovery  in  agriculture  or  in  home  economics  can 
thus  be  carried  to  the  school  in  the  open  country  and 
thence  to  the  farm. 

In  this  connection  a  type  of  secondary  school  which 
has  developed  in  recent  years,  and  which  promises  to 
become  a  potent  factor  in  a  country  life  education,  is  of 
extreme  interest ;  namely,  the  agricultural  high  school, 
located  at  a  conveniently  accessible  point  within  and 
comprising  a  five  or  ten  county  district  or  a  congres- 
sional district.  These  large,  well-equipped  institutions 
articulate  with  the  consolidated  schools  below  and 
the  agricultural  colleges  above  and  occupy  a  position  in- 
termediate between  the  two.  The  courses  of  study  of 
these  schools  are  designed  to  prepare  the  farm  boy 
and  girl  to  return  to  the  farm  as  farmers  and  home 
makers  and  to  become  local  leaders.  These  schools 
have  attached  to  them  farms,  usually  of  several  hundred 
acres,  herds  of  different  breeds  of  pure-bred  farm  animals, 
modern  farm  buildings,  creameries,  a  large  faculty  of 
specialists,  and  a  large  and  vigorous  student  body.  The 
best  examples  of  this  type  of  school  are  at  present  to  be 
found  in  Minnesota  and  Nebraska.  There  are  in  all 
about  seventy-five  in  the  United  States.  Eventually 
400  of  these  institutions  will  be  built  up. 

The  county  agricultural  high  school  is  another  form  of 
secondary  school  in  which  agriculture  is  taught.  It 
usually  fills  the  place  also  of  county  high  school.  It  nec- 
essarily has  less  equipment,  a  smaller  faculty,  is  less 
inspirational  and  vital,  than  the  larger  agricultural  high 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE   COMMUNITY    SCHOOL      269 

school.  Owing  to  comparative  ease  of  access  the 
county  agricultural  high  schools  favor  a  strong  attend- 
ance, from  the  immediate  surroundings,  and  are,  there- 
fore, inimical  to  the  development  of  local  high  schools  in 
the  consolidated  schools.  This  makes  for  the  continua- 
tion of  the  one-room  schools,  or  at  best  consolidation 
takes  place  in  the  direction  of  only  consolidated  graded 
schools,  both  eventualities  resulting  in  a  smaller  aggre- 
gate high  school  attendance  in  the  county  than  would 
be  in  the  twenty  or  thirty  typical  consolidated  schools, 
and  these  leading  to  the  large  district  agricultural  high 
school  serving  a  group  of  counties.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  consolidated  school  occupies  a  position  of  strategic 
importance  in  rural  education  affairs.  That  not  more  of 
these  schools  have  to-day  widened  their  field  by  teaching 
studies  in  agriculture  and  home  economics  is  due  in 
large  part  to  a  temporary  lack  of  teachers  with  agricul- 
tural training.  In  consequence  of  this,  there  is  at  pres- 
ent almost  an  entire  absence  of  cooperation  with  the 
state  college,  the  state  experiment  station,  and  the  ex- 
tension department,  although  every  facility  for  articu- 
lating the  consolidated  school  splendidly  with  all  these 
agencies  exists.  If  more  county  superintendents  and 
more  principals  of  consolidated  schools  attended  courses 
in  agriculture  (even  if  only  short  courses)  in  the  state 
colleges  of  their  respective  states,  these  men  and  women 
would  learn  how  to  utilize  college,  experiment  station, 
extension  department,  and  the  national  Department 
of  Agriculture,   and  would   come  into    close  personal 


270  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

contact  with  leaders  of  thought  in  those  lines  of  work, 
and  would  see  their  philosophy  and  viewpoint.     Cir- 
cumstances and  need  will  suggest  numberless  ways  in 
which  cooperation  with  the  institutions  named  can  be 
effected.     Thus,  for   example,  in   several   localities   in 
southern  states,  consoHdated  schools  have  succeeded  in 
interesting  the  agents  of  the  farm  demonstration  divi- 
sion of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and   these   men   cooperate  with    the   county    superin- 
tendents  and  principals,    and   in   their   travels   in  the 
county  make  periodic  visits  to  the  consolidated  schools, 
giving   the   boys   and  girls   instruction   which   supple- 
ments that  which  they  receive  in  working  their  one-acre 
demonstration  fields  on  their  home  farms.     Where  a 
school  farm  is  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  consoH- 
dated school,  it  can  be  made  infinitely  attractive  and 
effective.     Boys  and  girls  going  from  the  consoHdated 
school  to  a  city  high  school,  or  to  college  for  a  technical 
or  professional  education,  will  by  no  means  be  retarded 
by  the  agriculture  and  home  economics  instruction  they 
have  received,  but  on  the  contrary  will  be  greatly  bene- 
fited.    The  great,  the  important  function  of  the  consoH- 
dated school  is  to  provide  every  farm  boy  and  girl  with 
a  broadly  vocational  preparation  so  that  whether  grad- 
uating from  the  upper  elementary  grades  or  the  high 
school,  they  wiH  be  quaHfied  to  return  to  the  farm,  to 
take  their  part  in  building  up  a  strongly  organized  and 
profitable  country  Hfe,  and  to  make  the  family  owned 
and   family   operated   farm   the   fundamental   unit   of 
American  agriculture. 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF    THE   COMMUNITY   SCHOOL      27 1 

The  consolidated  school  is  distinctly  the  product  of 
evolution  in  country  life  affairs.  Primarily  designed  to 
correct  antiquated  educational  conditions,  it  has  subse- 
quently developed  into  an  effective  instrumentality  for 
redirecting  and  vitalizing  country  life.  As  yet,  only  few 
of  these  schools  have  gone  beyond  the  initial  stages  in 
the  organization  of  country  life.  Communities,  however, 
are  constantly  discovering  themselves.  With  this  new 
viewpoint,  is  the  wealth  of  material  at  hand  for  the 
organization  of  a  full  and  enriched  American  country 
Hfe  not  well-nigh  inexhaustible?  Can  the  rural  so- 
ciologist find  anywhere  more  fertile  ground  in  which 
to  plant  his  encouraging  activities?  Almost  unlimited 
are  the  opportunities  for  service  in  the  field  of  com- 
munity building,  cooperation,  and  education  in  the 
open  country,  with  the  consolidated  school  as  the  solid 
basis.  The  solution  of  rural  problems  must  grow  out 
of  the  soil ;  it  will  not  come  from  "  country  life  ofiices  " 
in  city  skyscrapers.  Wide  travel  has  afforded  the  writer 
opportunity  to  observe  the  varied  activities  which  con- 
solidated schools,  assisted  by  good  roads,  rural  telephones, 
and  rural  free  delivery  of  mail,  have  drawn  to  and  af- 
filiated with  themselves  or  have  in  some  way  influenced. 
There  have  been  found  in  active  operation  one  or  several 
of  these  activities : 

Grange,  farmers'  institutes,  lecture  courses,  farmers' 
short  course,  farm  demonstration  union,  farmers'  wives' 
special  short  course  in  cooking,  dressmaking,  literature, 
and  history ;  art  and  crafts  work ;  boys'  corn  club,  girls' 


272  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

canning  and  poultry  club,  boys*  and  girls'  demonstration 
club,  literary  and  oratorical  club,  young  people's  dra- 
matic club,  intercounty  oratorical  club,  athletic  union, 
ladies'  social  circle,  glee  club,  boys'  temperance  union, 
Sunday  School,  circulating  Hbrary  for  books  and  maga- 
zines, agricultural  reference  library,  debating  society, 
baseball,  basketball,  and  football  teams. 

The  rural  community  possessed  of  the  enterprise  and 
progressiveness  to  establish  a  consolidated  school,  will 
bring  these  same  quahties  to  bear  on  its  other  internal 
problems.  The  present  need  is  local  leaders  who  possess 
vision  and  who  will  vigorously  inaugurate  d3mamic 
activities.  If  the  activities  just  enumerated  did  at  all 
exist  in  the  respective  localities  prior  to  the  organization 
of  the  consoHdated  school  district,  they  did  so  in  a  dis- 
connected manner  and  less  efficiently.  Greater  strength, 
inspiration,  and  continuity  of  effort  invariably  result  from 
the  larger  organization,  and  the  larger  educational,  social, 
religious,  economic,  or  even  purely  recreational  society 
which  centers  at  the  consolidated  school  is  even  more 
than  four,  five,  or  ten  times  as  useful  as  the  corresponding 
number  of  societies  of  unaffiliated  districts. 

The  small  school  district  has  very  little  coherence 
socially.  The  dozen  or  more  families  form  too  small  a 
body  for  a  successful  cooperation.  There  is  less  call  for 
leadership,  and  funds  for  any  purpose  are  always  inade- 
quate. The  larger  unit  of  the  consolidated  school  dis- 
trict with  its  150  to  200  families  affords  a  much  better 
basis  for  organization.     There  is  opportunity  for  real 


THE    ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE   COMMUNITY    SCHOOL      273 

leadership,  and  leadership  is  made  worth  while.  Larger 
funds  are  available  for  any  undertaking,  larger  plans  can 
be  formulated  with  more  persons  to  take  part  in  and  sup- 
port them.  The  larger  and  strongly  organized  district  is 
in  position  to  make  its  voice  heard  and  its  influence  felt 
in  county  and  even  in  state  affairs.  With  the  system 
of  district  schools  as  at  present  organized,  has  not  the 
school  district  a  very  impotent  voice  in  county  affairs  ? 

The  fact  that  at  last  there  has  been  discovered  the  unit 
upon  which  country  hfe  can  be  organized  and  which  can 
be  shaped  to  conform  to  its  every  possible  need,  is  of  far- 
reaching  importance.  And,  what  is  most  encouraging, 
it  has  grown  up  spontaneously.  Detailed  comparisons 
between  the  two  types  of  schools  were  not  attempted 
because  the  superiority  of  the  consolidated  school  is 
now  generally  accepted  as  a  demonstrated  fact  and  this 
entire  discussion  has  been  made  from  that  point  of 
view.  All  local  institutions  and  country  life  resources, 
whether  they  be  racial  or  social  or  educational,  deserve 
the  best  thought  and  fullest  support  of  every  citizen. 
The  best  agency  through  which  country  life  and  the  coun- 
try school  can  be  vitalized,  a  competent  generation  of 
farmers  be  reared  and  a  permanent  agriculture  be  es- 
tablished, is  the  consolidated  rural  school. 

SURVEY   OF   EDUCATIONAL   ADMINISTRATION 

Are  the  schools  of  your  community  of  the  older  t5T)e  of  district 
school,  or  have  the  processes  of  consolidation  and  organization 
taken  place?    If  not,  what  are  the  objections  to  such  consolida- 

T 


274  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

tion  ?  Are  the  roads  of  the  community  fitted  for  a  school  wagon  ? 
If  not,  would  not  such  a  movement  tend  to  foster  development 
of  roads?  What  would  be  the  probable  outcome  of  a  campaign 
for  the  consolidation  of  the  schools  of  the  community  ?  What  is 
the  real  relationship  between  the  schools  and  the  community? 
Does  the  life  of  the  community  affect  in  any  way  the  work  of  the 
school,  or  is  the  school  work  purely  traditional  ?  Does  the  work  of 
the  school  in  any  way  affect  the  life  of  the  community,  or  is  it  purely 
remote  ?  What  can  be  done  by  the  school  —  teacher  and  pupils 
—  to  bring  about  a  closer  relationship  with  the  community  ?  Is 
there  any  feeling  of  resentment  of  community  domination  of  the 
school's  work  ? 

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Knorr,  George  W.  A  Study  of  Fifteen  Consolidated  Rural 
Schools,  their  Organization,  Cost,  Efficiency,  and  Affiliated  In- 
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Washington,  D.C.,  p.  55. 

Graham,  A.  B.  Centralized  Schools  in  Ohio,  1907,  Ohio  State 
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Davenport,  E.  Consolidation  of  Our  Schools.  University  of 
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RiGGS,  John  F.  Conditions  and  Needs  of  Rural  Schools.  1905. 
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Kern,  0.  J.  Consolidation  of  Country  Schools.  Education 
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portation of  Pupils.  Washington,  191 1,  Bulletin  No.  i,  pp. 
120. 

Fairchild,  E.  T.  Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools.  Topeka, 
Kan.,  1908,  pp.  48. 

Knorr,  George  W.  Consolidated  Rural  Schools  and  Organiza- 
tion of  a  County  System.  Bulletin  232,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.,  pp.  99. 

Consolidation  and  Transportation,  New  Hampshire.  Department 
of  Education,  Concord,  N.H.,  pp.  12. 

Kelley,  Patrick  H.  Consolidation  of  School  Districts  in  Michigan. 
Lansing,  Mich.,  Bulletin  No.  19,  1906,  pp.  23. 

Brogden,  L.  C.  Consolidating  Schools  and  Public  Transporta- 
tion of  Pupils.    Raleigh,  191 1,  pp.  135. 


276  EDUCATIONAL  RESOURCES 

Hays,  Willet  M.  Education  for  Country  Life.  Circular  84, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  p.  40. 

Hays,  Willet  M.  Our  Farm  Youth  and  the  Public  Schools, 
American  Monthly  Review  of   Reviews,  October,    1903,  pp. 

449-455- 
Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association  for  the  follow- 
ing years:    1908,  pp.  804-811;    1902,  pp.  224-231  and  793- 
798;   1903,  pp.  919-936;   1904,  pp.  313-316;   1906,  pp.  338- 
348;   1907,  pp.  277-279. 
Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  on  Rural  Schools,  1905,  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 
Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the 
following  years:    1901,  pp.  161-215;    1903,  pp.  2405-2414; 
1904,  pp.  2277-2279;   1905,  p.  193. 
Reports  of  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  for  the 
following  years : 
Indiana,  1904,  pp.  271-319;  1906,  pp.  617-693;  1908,  p.  i8. 
Ohio,  1905,  pp.  14-16  and  314-317. 
Nebraska,  1904,  pp.  225-282 ;  1906,  pp.  341-352. 
Iowa,  1905,  pp.  225-241 ;   1906,  pp.  142,  143. 
Illinois,  1906,  pp.  24-27  and  136-148. 
Massachusetts,  1904  and  subsequent  years. 
Connecticut,  1902,  pp.  10-12  and  332-336;   1905,  pp.  204-207. 
Vermont,  1906,  pp.  28-41 ;  1902,  pp.  38-49. 
Kansas,  1906,  pp.  17,  18  and  194,  195. 
Jones,  Frank  L.     Rural  Schools.     1902,  Indianapolis. 
The  Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools  and  the  Transportation  of  Pupils 
(Special  Number).     The  Western  Journal  of  Education  (San 
Francisco).     June,  1903. 
Tenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Illinois  Farmers'  Institute,  Springfield, 

111.,  1905,  pp.  208-213. 
LoNSDORF,  H.  H.     The  Consolidation  of  Country  Schools.     De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1901,  p.  89. 
Fletcher,  G.  T.     The  Consolidation  of  Schools  and  the  Conveyance 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF    THE   COMMUNITY    SCHOOL      277 

of  Children.  Bulletin  of  State  Board  of  Education,  Boston, 
Mass.,  p.  25. 

Graham,  A.  B.  The  Township  High  School  of  Ohio.  Agricultural 
College  Extension  Bulletin,  Columbus,  Ohio,  Vol.  Ill,  February, 
1908.    No.  6,  p.  20. 

Kern,  O.  J.  The  Consolidation  of  Country  Schools.  Rockford, 
111.,  Special  Bulletin,  December,  1903,  p.  8. 

FoGHT,  Harold  W.  The  American  Rural  School,  its  Characteristics , 
its  Future,  and  its  Problems. 

AswoLD,  James  B.  The  Consolidation  of  School  Districts.  De- 
partment of  Education,  Baton  Rouge,  p.  77. 

Upham,  a.  a.  Transportation  of  Children  at  Public  Expense. 
Edttcational  Review,  October,  1900,  pp.  241-251. 

Symmes,  Sam  D.  Transportation  of  School  Children  to  Consoli- 
dated Schools.     Crawfordsville,  Ind. 

DiEHL,  H.  A.  Trumbull  County,  Ohio,  Centralized  Schools. 
Prairie  Farmer,  .Cleveland,  Ohio,  February  3,  1906,  and 
February  10, 1906. 


'T^HE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects. 


THE  RURAL  OUTLOOK  SET 

By  Professor  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Director  of  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agricultiire  at  Cornell  University 

Pour  Volumes.    Each,  cloth,  12mo.   Uniform  binding,  attractivdy  boxed.    S6.00 
net  per  set;  carriage  extra.    Each  volume  also  sold  separately. 

In  this  set  are  included  three  of  Professor  Bailey's  most  popular  books  as  well  as  s 
hitherto  unpublished  one, — "The  Coimtry-Life  Movement."  The  long  and  perast- 
ent  demand  for  a  uniform  edition  of  these  little  classics  is  answered  with  the  publica- 
tion of  this  attractive  series. 

The  Country-Life  Movement 

Cloth,  12mo,  220  pages,  $1.25  net;  by  nuiiU  $1.34 

This  hitherto  unpublished  volume  deals  with  the  present  movement  for  the  re- 
direction of  rural  civilization,  discussing  the  real  country-life  problem  as  distin- 
gxiished  from  the  city  problem,  known  as  the  back-to-the-land  movement. 

The  Outlook  to  Nature  (New  and  Revised  Edition) 

Cloth,  12mo,  195  pages,  $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

In  this  alive  and  bracing  book,  full  of  suggestion  and  encouragement.  Professor 
Bailey  argues  the  importance  of  contact  with  nature,  a  sympathetic  attitude 
toward  w&ch  "means  greater  eflSciency,  hopefulness,  and  repose." 

The  State  and  the  Farmer  (New  Edition) 

Cloth,  12mo,  $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

It  is  the  relation  of  the  farmer  to  the  government  that  Professor  Bailey  here  discusses 
in  its  varying  aspects.  He  deals  specifically  with  the  change  in  agricultural 
methods,  in  the  shifting  of  the  geographical  centers  of  farming  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  the  growth  of  agricultural  institutions. 

The  Nature  Study  Idea  (New  Edition) 

Cloth,  12mo,  $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

"It  would  be  well,"  the  critic  of  The  Tribune  Farmer  once  wrote,  "if  'The  Nature 
Study  Idea'  were  in  the  hands  of  every  person  who  favors  nature  study  in  the 
public  schools,  of  every  one  who  is  opposed  to  it,  and,  most  important,  of  every 
one  who  teaches  it  or  thinks  he  does."  It  has  been  Professor  Bailey's  purpose  to 
interpret  the  new  school  movement  to  put  the  young  into  relation  and  sumpatby 
with  nature, — a  purpose  which  he  has  admirably  accomplished. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


THE  RURAL  MANUALS 

Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Manual  of  Farm  Animals 

A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Choosing,  Breeding  and  Keep  of  Horses, 

Cattle*  Sheep  and  Swine. 

By  MERRITT  W.  HARPER 

'  Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture at  Cornell  University 

Illustrated,   decorated  cloth,   12mo,  645  pofifes,  index,  $2.00  net; 
by  mail,  $2.18 
"The  work  is  invaluable  as  a  practical  guide  in  raising  farm  animals," 

— Morning   Telegram. 
"A  book  deserving  of  close  study  as  well  as  being  handy  for  [reference,  and 
should  be  in  the  possession  of  every  farmer  interested  in  stock." — Rural  World. 

Manual  of  Gardening 

A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Making 

Flowers,  Fruits  and  Vegetables  for  Home  Use. 

By  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Illustrated,  cloth,  12mo,  644  pages,  $2.00  net',  by  mail,  $2.17 
This  new  work  is  a  combination  and  revision  of  the  main  parts  of  two  other 
books  by  the  same  author,  "Garden  Making"  and  "Practical  Garden  Book," 
together  with  much  new  material  and  the  result  of  the  experience  of  ten  added 
years.  Among  the  persons  who  collaborated  in  the  preparation  of  the  other  two 
books,  and  whose  contributions  have  been  freely  used  in  this  one,  are  C.  E.  Hunn, 
a  gardener  of  long  erperience;  Professor  Ernest  Walker,  reared  as  a  conamercial 
florist;  Professor  L.  R.  Taft,  and  Professor  F.  A.  Waugh,  well  known  for  their 
studies  and  writings  on  horticultural  subjects. 

A  STANDARD  WORK  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 

The  Farm  and  Garden  Rule  Book 

By  LIBERTY  H.  BAILEY 

Illustrated,  cloth,  12mo,  $2.00  net 
When  Professor  Bailey's  "Horticulturist's  Rule  Book"  was  published  nearly 
twenty-five  years  ago,  the  volume  became  a  standard  agricultural  work  running 
through  sixteen  editions.  Taking  this  book  as  a  basis  the  author  has  now  made  a 
wholly  new  book,  extending  it  to  cover  the  field  of  general  farming,  stock-raising, 
dairying,  poultry-rearing,  horticulture,  gardening,  forestry,  and  the  like.  It  is 
essentially  a  small  cyclopedia  of  ready  rules  and  references  packed  full  from  coyer 
to  cover  of  condensed,  meaty  information  and  precepts  on  almost  every  leading 
subject  connected  with  country  life. 

IN    PREPARATION 

Manual  of  Home-Making.  Manual  of  Cultivated  Plants 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


NEW  FARM  AND  GARDEN  BOOKS 

Crops  and  Methods  for  Soil  Improvement 

By  ALVA  AGEE 

Illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.    $1.50  net, 

A  simple  and  comprehensive  treatment  of  all  questions  bearing 
on  the  conserving  and  improving  of  farm  soil.  The  book  is  not  a 
technical  treatise,  being  designed  solely  to  point  out  the  plain, 
every-day  facts  in  the  natural  scheme  of  making  and  keeping  soils 
productive.  It  is  concerned  with  the  crops,  methods  and  fertilizers 
that  favor  the  soil. 

The  work  will  be  of  interest  to  the  practical  man,  the  farmer, 
the  lecturer,  and  all  who  deal  directly  or  indirectly  with  farmers, 
and  because  of  its  popular  style,  it  is  easy  reading  for  anyone. 

Forage  Crops  for  the  South 

By  S.  M.  TRACY 

Illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.    Preparing. 

Professor  Tracy  has  had  long  experience  in  Southern  agriculture, 
both  in  application  and  in  teaching.  He  was  formerly  Professor  of 
Agriculture  in  the  Mississippi  Agricultural  College,  and  now  con- 
ducts a  branch  station  or  farm  for  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture.  He  is  a  botanist  of  note  and  has  traveled  exten- 
sively in  the  South  as  a  collector.  His  book  is  not  only  authentic, 
but  practical.  In  it  is  contained  a  discussion  of  all  kinds  of  plants 
and  crops  adapted  to  the  Southern  States  for  fodder,  soiling, 
pasturing  and  hay.   The  text  is  abundantly  illustrated. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


NEW  FARM  AND  GARDEN  BOOKS 

Injurious  Insects:  How  to  Recognize  and 
Control  Them 

By  W.  C.  O'KANE 

Entomologist   of   the   New   Hampshire   Agricultural    Experiment  Station,   and 
Professor  of  Economic  Entomology  in  New  Hampshire  College 

Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo.  $2.00  net. 
Complete  information  on  the  characteristics,  life  his- 
tories and  means  of  control  of  the  more  common  injurious 
insects,  including  those  infesting  field  crops,  vegetables, 
fruits,  the  principal  pests  of  domestic  animals,  stored  prod- 
ucts and  the  household,  is  contained  in  this  book.  A  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  work  is  the  illustrations  with  which 
the  text  throughout  is  accompanied.  These  have  been 
made  especially  for  Dr.  O'Kane.  With  each  insect  treated 
he  shows  in  an  original  photograph  the  characteristic  in- 
jurious stage  or  the  typical  work  of  the  insect  where  that 
is  characteristic.  By  this  means  the  author  hopes  that  the 
layman  will  be  able  to  recognize  an  insect  that  threatens 
by  the  picture  aside  from  any  description  in  the  text. 

Principles  of  Fruit  Growing 

By  Professor  L.  H.  BAILEY 

New  edition.  Cloth,  12mo.  $1.50  net. 
Since  the  original  pubHcation  of  this  book,  in  1897,  it 
has  gone  through  many  editions.  The  progress  of  fruit 
growing  in  the  meantime  has  been  very  marked  and  it 
has  been  necessary  to  completely  rewrite  the  work.  The 
present  issue  of  it  brings  the  accounts  of  the  new 
practices  and  discoveries  as  they  relate  to  fruit  growing 
up  to  date.  All  of  the  text  and  practically  all  of  the 
illustrations  are  new. 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DOT  ON  ^lAST  DATE 
^^^  STAMPED  BELOW 

OVERDUE.  


AUG_6_JM1— 
1944 


|^ER-UttK>^ 


WWMl^ 


LD21-100TO-7.' 40  (6936b) 


295589 


LS  /5C»7 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CATJFOT^NIA  T.IRRARV 


